Yoga Sutra Study

वितर्का हिंसादयः कृतकारितानुमोदिता लोभक्रोधमोहपूर्वका मृदुमध्याधिमात्रा दुःखाज्ञानानन्तफला इति प्रतिपक्षभावनम्॥३४॥

vitarkā hiṁsādayaḥ kr̥ta-kārita-anumoditā lobha-krodha-moha-āpūrvakā mr̥du-madhya adhimātrā duḥkha-ajñāna-ananta-phalā iti pratiprakṣa-bhāvanam ॥34॥

vitarkaa = negative or perverse thoughts; hiMsaa = violence; AdayaH = etc.; kRuta = performed; kaarita = caused to be done; anumoditaa = allowed; lobha = greed; krodha = anger; moha = infatuation; pUrvakaa = preceded by; mRudu = mild; madhya = medium; adhimaatraa = intense; duHkha = suffering; aj~jaana = ignorance; anaanta = never-ending; phalaa =end results, fruits; iti = thus; pratipakSha = the opposite; bhaavanam = cultivation

Sw. Satchidananda

"When negative thoughts of acts such as violence, etc. are caused to be done or even approved of, whether incited by greed, anger or infatuation, whether indulged in with mild, medium or extreme intensity, they are based on ignorance and bring certain pain. Reflecting thus is also pratipaksha bhavana."

If we bring pain to someone or cause harm to be done to another, reactions will result in ignorance and misery for us. Even if we don’t cause the pain directly, we can merely approve of someone else causing the pain due to our own anger or ignorance.

Bryant

"Negative thoughts are violence, etc. They may be [personally] performed, performed on one’s behalf by another, or authorized by oneself; they may be triggered by greed, anger, or delusion; and they may be slight, moderate, or extreme in intensity. One should cultivate counteracting thoughts, namely, that the end result [of negative thoughts] are ongoing suffering and ignorance."

Vitarkas are thoughts or actions of violence (himsa) etc., contrary to the yamas and niyamas. These can be divided into three categories:

• Performed by oneself (kRuta): e.g., killing an animal oneself
• Performed by others on your behalf: e.g., buying meat that has been killed by someone else
• Approved or authorized by you in some way: e.g., allowing killing of animals to be done in one’s sphere of influence

Manu in his famous Manu Smriti (verse V.51) states, "the one who gives permission, the one who butchers, the one who slaughters, the one who buys and sells, the one who prepares it, the one who serves it, and the eater – they are all killers".

Each of these categories has been further divided into three categories based on intensity – mild, moderate and intense. Additionally, they can be provoked in three ways: by lobha (greed); krodha (anger); or moha (illusion).

Since greed, anger, and delusion can form the basis for violent acts done by oneself, on one’s behalf or authorized by oneself, and can be mild, moderate or intense, there can be up to 27 divisions of violence, as noted by Patanjali. As per Vyasa, the possibilities can be innumerable since there are other factors qualifying violence (e.g., it is OK to kill such and such animal under these circumstances etc.). It must be kept in mind that all these divisions apply to each of the ten yamas and niyamas, with violence serving just as an example in this discussion.

To oppose these thoughts one needs to think of the consequences of acts such as violence. The sutra states that thinking that these acts lead us to unlimited ignorance and suffering, we can develop pratipaksha bhavana (opposing thoughts). The resulting suffering may come either in this life or in a future life. This follows the law of karma which Patanajali has talked about.

Violence can be regarded as a result of the guna ‘tamas’. Perpetuating violence increased tamas which is ignorance of the chitta. Reflecting on these negative consequences, one should not contemplate on committing negative acts like violence.

Discussion

(Commentary by Kailasam Iyer)

Before we try to understand this sutra at the intellectual level let us allow ourselves to revel in the beauty of the sutra, in the choice of words, and the cadence of the string of sounds. Our sages, in addition to being wise, were also poets and dreamers. They experienced with their senses in relief. Sunitha, no stranger to music, had noticed this before. Indulge me as I read it aloud savoring it.

Vitharka himsadhayaha – Perversities are incubators of injuries (to the mind) leading to
Kritha karitha anumodhitha – Done, caused to be done, and approved deeds originating in
Lobha krodha moha purvaka – Greed, anger and delusion of the dimensions of
Mridhu madhya adhimatra – Small medium and large, Soft average and intense degrees resulting in
Dukha agnana ananthapala – Unending consequences of emotional pain and ignorance
Ithi prathipakshabhavanam – Therefore assumption of counterstrategic stance

Doubts, questioning, argument -for- argument-sake (devil’s advocate) etc., have their place in the acquisition of knowledge prior to commitment. Once begun, they hinder the progress towards the goal and in fact produce what our ancestors had considered as the sources of all suffering – emotional pain and poverty of mind. Both can completely inhabit the mind to the point of inertia. Darkness visible!

Vyasa illustrates the significance of the sutra by taking us on a three-fold interrelated journey of the mind. He considers one of the possible perversities among many that can crop up in the mind in some detail and in the process gives us a researcher’s view of the interior landscape of the mind.

We start with the thought of an act of violence and follow the thread of the act which could be performed by ourselves.

1. The thought of an act is provoked by one of three major ( out of the possible six) enemies of the Sat (Being) – anger for example. This could consume us in one of three degrees – even the mild is bad enough to cause emotional pain. If you thus also consider acts for which we are agents and acts which we silently go along with, the mind field is clogged with at least eightyone ( 3x3x3x3) ways of impairing you.
2. A contemplated act of violence may EITHER be committed OR be restrained by force of will. If committed against another being, deprivation of another’s right to dignity enervates you ( your soul). It produces guilt which even if nobody else notices makes your long life miserable.
3. If the wanton act is suppressed for reasons of social pressures and such, it eats you from the inside by erupting in unpredictable ways and shortens your life.

Thus it’s not just don’t do it but don’t even think about it. If the thought arises train your mind to reject (kill) it. The wondrous human mind is rich in layers of many hues and a thought once allowed can reach into the recesses, play out an engaging drama, and drain your energy.

Three things come to my mind. The first is the methodology Vyasa recommends for thinking through a situation and his suggestion for practicing this method until it becomes second nature. The second is the way Valmiki had drawn the life of Ravana in Ramayana to illustrate this sutra. A powerful man- pious, learned, and prosperous – is drawn by temptation and delusion and is destroyed. The third is the image of Nataraja, the Dancing Siva of Thillai. This is not a run-of – the- mill yogic pose. Notice the smile on his face while he has all the passions ( live objects on him, around him, and under his feet) totally subdued. Mythology has it that Lord Siva personally invited Sage Patanjali and Sage Vyagrapada to visit Thillai on the occasion of his Cosmic Dance performance, the anniversary of which is coming up in about a month. As a beginner one might cogitate on Beowulf – the slayer of interior demons. As a skilled practitioner, one might stand on a pillow and stand as Nataraja, Lord of Dance.

We will do well by reflecting on this sutra and remembering the details. Sage Patanjali uses them in the next ten sutras.

शौचसंतोषतपःस्वाध्यायेश्वरप्रणिधानानि नियमाः॥३२॥

śauca saṁtoṣa tapaḥ svādhyāy-eśvarapraṇidhānāni niyamāḥ ॥32॥

shoucha = cleanliness; saMtoSha = contentment; tapaH = austerity; svaadhyaaya = study [of the scriptures]; IshvarapraNidhaanani = devotion to God, the Lord; niyamaaH = observances

Sw. Satchidananda

"Niyama consists of purity, contentment, accepting but not causing pain, study of spiritual books and worship of God [self-surrender]".

The five yamas and the five niyamas remind us of the Ten Commandments of the Christian and Jewish faiths, as well as of the ten virtues of Buddhism.

Bryant

"The observances are cleanliness, contentment, austerity, study of scriptures, and devotion to God"

Whereas yamas are concerned with how the yogi interacts with others by desisting from certain activities, niyamas focus on personal discipline and practice by engaging in certain activities.

Shaucha (cleanliness): Vyasa mentions both internal and external cleanliness. External cleanliness consists in cleaning with clay and water (soap and water for us!) etc. and taking pure food which does not include meat and intoxicants. Alcohol, for example, creates disturbance in the mind which inhibits concentration and meditation. Internal cleanliness consists of purifying the mind of contaminations like anger, hatred, jealousy, pride, vanity, attachments etc. An attitude of friendliness toward all will help internal cleanliness.

Santosha (contentment): Santosha represents disinterest in accumulating more than one’s immediate needs of life. The Bhagavad Gita makes a strong statement against desires that can never be satisfied. To avoid injury to the foot from thorns, one only needs to wear a pair of shoes – there should be no need to cover the entire earth with leather!

Tapas (austerirty): Tapas is the ability to withstand hunger and thirst as well as the dualities of life like hot and cold etc., to avoid useless talk, and to perform fasts etc. Yoga involves enduring hardships and remain undisturbed by the lack of material comforts. Tapas does not mean inflicting undue hardship on the body.

Svadhyay (Study): Svadhyay refers to study of sacred scriptures and repetition of OM and other devotional mantras. By the practice of Svadhyay, desire for worldly objects diminishes and taste for spirituality increases.

Ishvara Pranidhana (devotion to God): Ishvara Pranidhana  is offering one’s activities to Ishvara, the original teacher, without desire for the fruit of actions. In Bhagavad Gita, it forms a central theme for the concept of Bhakti Yoga. Vyasa notes that through devotion to Ishvara all obstacles are removed and one is able to realize the innermost consciousness. Many consider devotion to Ishvara to be the most important of all yamas and niyamas. It is important to note that although Ishvara Pranidhana  was optional in the first chapter (Ishvara Pranidhanat va – sutra 1.23), it is not so in the context of the niyamas or the Kriya Yoga mentioned in sutra 2.1.

Discussion

It is interesting to note that the three components of Kriya Yoga (sutra 2.1), namely, tapas, swadhyaya, and Ishvara Pranidhana have been repeated as the last three Niyamas by Patanjali. According to some commentators:

• Tapas expresses the essence of Karma Yoga
• Swadhyaya expresses the essence of Jnaha Yoga
• Ishvara Pranidhana expresses the essence of Bhakti Yoga

Shaucha

For external cleansing many commentators recommend the practice of the Shatkarma (six cleansing routines) mentioned in the Hatha Yoga Pradipika:

1. Dhauti (internal cleansing)
2. Basti (yogic enema)
3. Neti (nasal cleansing)
4. Trataka (concentrated gazing)
5. Nauli (abdominal churning)
6. Kapalabhati (skull shining)

Internal cleansing is recommended through the attitude of friendliness etc. – sutra 1.33. Six "mental impurities" are commonly mentioned – kama (lust/craving), krodha (anger), lobha (greed), moha (delusion), mada  (arrogance), and matsarya (jealousy). The ultimate internal cleansing involves removing all the five kleshas by the attainment of "viveka khyati" (discriminative discernment).

Santosha

When the mind is happy because of the light of sattva guna, that is contentment. Total lethargy, lack of interest due to dominance of tamas guna is NOT contentment. Sankhya Karika (#50) lists the following as "tushti" (you may call it "false contentment"):

• Giving up the practice of the eight limbs of yoga hoping that Prakriti is working by itself toward bhoga and apavarga (sutra 2.18)
• Believing that by adopting the life of a sanyasi, no effort is required and that samadhi will come by itself
• Since everything is predetermined based on samskaras, there is not need for effort
• If it is in my fate, I’ll get samadhi any way

Tapas

The word tapa literally means heat. Just like gold is purified by putting it through intense heat, the same way our body and mind are purified by practicing tapas. What constitutes the practice of tapas? In my understanding, making a determination to give up your normal comforts for a certain amount of time is a part of tapas. For example, if you enjoy a certain food, you may give that up for, say, six months. You may apply this to watching TV, reading something, giving up smoking, drinking etc. Setting  a certain time of day for your yoga practice (asana, pranayama, meditation) and following through with the program is tapas.

Many commentators mention fasting as a form of tapas. One fast that is mentioned is Chandrayana. In this fast, on the full moon day, you take your regular meal. For the next fifteen days, keep reducing the quantity of food consumed by one fifteenth. On the day of ‘amavasya’ (dark night), observe a total fast for 24 hours. Then continue to increase the amount of food by one fifteenth each day until the full moon day when you eat the regular meal. A more common approach to fasting is to fast once a week.

Other type of tapas mentioned is to keep ‘mauna’ (silence) for a certain period of time. During this time, dedicating most of the time to the study of spiritual literature and spending time in meditation is recommended.

Bhagavad Gita categorizes tapas into sattvic, rajasic and tamasik tapas (Shlokas 17.17-19). It also mentions the tapas of the body, speech and mind.

Swadhyaya

In addition to the study of scriptures like the Gita, Upanishads, Yoga Sutra etc., Vyasa mentions chanting of mantra as a form of Swadhyay. In the Indian culture, one of the most commonly recited mantras is the Gayatri Mantra:

Oṃ bhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ tát savitúr váreṇ(i)yaṃ

bhárgo devásya dhīmahi dhíyo yó naḥ pracodáyāt

"We meditate on the glory of that Being who has produced this universe; may He enlighten our minds." – Translation by Sw. Vivekananda

This is considered to be a very powerful mantra as it is used to pray for an intellect that will lead us in the right direction in life.

Ishvara Pranidhana

As is commonly believed, Patanjali used the basic tenets of the Sankhya philosophy in formulating the philosophy that he presented in the Yoga Sutras. Sankhya does not include the discussion of Ishvara (God). It only talks about the two independent entities – Purusha and Prakriti. In the Yoga Sutras, in addition to the philosophy, Patanjali has also provided the methodology to achieve the objectives of yoga. He has introduced the concept of Ishvara and has presented Ishvara Pranidhana (surrender to God) as one of the means of achieving the goal of yoga. In the Yoga Sutras the concept of Ishvara is presented in sutras 1.23-29. In chapter 1, Ishvara Pranidhana has been given as an optional means to attain calmness of the mind. However, in chapter 2, it is mentioned both as part of Kriya Yoga (sutra 2.1) and also as one of the niyamas.

Vyasa defines Ishvara Pranidhana as – dedicating and surrendering all practices and acts to the supreme Guru, as well as renouncing the results and fruits thereof. It is worth noting that this definition is different from what was presented in chapter 1. There Ishvara Pranidhana was used more as a mental attitude to calm the mind. As a part of the niyamas, it is more like a practice as part of the eight limbs of yoga. As such, it can be considered a combination of Karma and Bhakti yoga. An often-quoted verse of Bhagavad Gita emphasizes Ishvara Pranidhana thus:

"Whatever you do, eat, offer as sacrifice, or give, whatever asceticism you perform, surrender that unto Me" (verse 9.27)

अहिंसासत्यास्तेयब्रह्मचर्यापरिग्रहा यमाः॥३०॥

ahiṁsā-satya-asteya brahmacarya-aparigrahāḥ yamāḥ ॥30॥

ahiMsaa = non-violence; satya = truthfulness; asteya = refraining from stealing; brahmacharya = celibacy; aparigrahaaH = refraining from acquisition or coveting; yamaaH = the absentions

Sw. Satchidananda

"Yama consists of non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, continence, and non-greed."

Ahimsa is not causing pain, not non-killing as mentioned by some authors. Himsa means to cause pain. Causing pain through words or thoughts can be even more harmful than killing. Truthfulness and non-stealing seem elementary, but are in fact "elephantry". They should not be considered mild as they are hard to perfect. Aparigraha can be translated in two ways – non-hoarding or accumulation beyond need, or non-acceptance of gifts.

Bryant

"The Yamas are nonviolence, truthfulness, refrainment from stealing, celibacy, and renunciation of [unnecessary] possessions."

Ahimsa (non-violence)

• Ahimsa was the main theme of Gandhi’s non-cooperation movement in bringing freedom to India from the British.
• Vyasa and other commentators declare ahimsa to be the most important of all the yamas and leads the list given by Patanjali.
• As per Vyasa, the goal of other yamas is to achieve ahimsa and enhance it.
• Vyasa defines ahimsa as not injuring any living creature anywhere at any time. However, one must continue to perform one’s dharma even though it might mean harming small insects and bacteria etc.
• Yogis should abstain from eating meat which involves nourishing one’s body by eating the flesh of other living beings.
• Jains have taken the concept of ahimsa further than any other tradition in history. They take precautions not to harm even insects and animals. The avoid eating after sunset, they sweep the floor in front while walking on the ground, they cover their mouth and nose with cloth to avoid  eating/inhaling insects etc. This is based on the Hindu belief that all living being contain an atman (soul) and all atmans are spiritually equal.
• A sattvic person never thinks of inflicting injury upon others as he understands the karmic consequence of violence.
• Ahimsa also encompasses giving up thoughts of malice and hatred as these produce tendency to hurt others through words or actions.

Satya (Truth)

• Vyasa defines truth as one’s words and thoughts being in correspondence with fact as known through the three means of knowledge (pramana) – from sense perception, inference, verbal testimony.
• Speech should not be deceitful, misleading or devoid of value. It should benefit  and not harm anybody. As Manu says in his Manusmriti, "Let him not speak what is true but unkind; let him not speak what is kind but untrue". (*see the Sanskrit verse below)
• A common example quoted is the one from Mahabharata where when Drona asks of Yudhishthira (righteous son of dharma, known to speak the truth always) if his son, Ashwatthama was dead, Yudhishthira simply replied "yes, Ashwatthama is dead". This was truthful to the extent that the elephant by that name had died. However, the meaning conveyed to Drona was that his son had died. This is considered as misleading as it lead to great harm to Drona and his downfall.
• Since we are always trying to follow ahimsa, truth should not hurt either. In case of apparent conflict between ahimsa and the other yamas, ahimsa should take preference.

Asteya (non-stealing)

Asteya is not taking things belonging to others and not even having a desire to do so. Having a desire may ultimately lead one to stealing. Even if you find a treasure trove of jewels it should not be taken as it doesn’t belong to you.

Brahmacharya (Celibacy)

Vyasa defines Brahmacharya as the control of the sexual organs. Some commentators include not seeing, speaking with, embracing or otherwise interacting with members of the opposite sex as objects of desire. Vyasa alludes to eight kinds of sexual indulgences – thinking, talking, joking about, looking passionately at members of opposite sex, talking secretly about, engaging in, attempting to do so, actual performance of sex. Ultimate self realization is not possible for one actively engaged in sex.

Aparigraha (renunciation of possessions)

Vyasa defines Aparigraha as the ability to see the problems caused by acquisition, preservation, and destruction of things, since these provoke attachment and injury. Possessions produce samskaras which activate in the future to cause distress if we can’t acquire items desired by us or losing the items that we possess. Yogis are advised to acquire only what is required for basic maintenance and give up all else.

Discussion

It is worth noting that Patanjali has provided us only the list of yamas and niyama. He does not provide any definition for these. It is safe to assume that Patanjali,  while teaching the students who must have already spent a fair amount of time with him, would have covered these basic yamas and niyamas before teaching them the concepts of yoga through the yoga sutras. Various authors have taken it upon themselves to provide their own definition and understanding of these basic values in their commentaries.

While describing Ahimsa, Bryant states that being a vegetarian is an absolute requirement for an aspiring yogi. I was trying to find out if there is any scriptural reference to back this claim. There is no such mention in some of the popular yoga-related texts, e.g., Bhagavad Gita, Yoga Sutra or the Hatha Yoga Pradipika. I would like to find out if any of the ancient scriptures categorically prohibit meat-eating.

*"Satyam bruyat priyam bruyat, na bruyat satyam apriyam;

Priyam cha na anritam (asatya) bruyat esh dharmah sanatanah."

योगाङ्गाऽनुष्ठानादशुद्धिक्षये ज्ञानदीप्तिराविवेकख्यातेः॥२८॥

yoga-aṅga-anuṣṭhānād-aśuddhi-kṣaye jñāna-dīptir-āviveka-khyāteḥ ॥28॥

yogaangga = limbs of yoga; anuShThaanaat = from the practice of; ashuddhi = impurity; kshaye = on the destruction of; jnjaana = knowledge; dIptih = light, lamp; a = up to; aviveka = discrimination; khyaateH = knowledge

Sw. Satchidananda

"By the practice of the limbs of Yoga, the impurities dwindle away and there dawns the light of wisdom, leading to discriminative discernment."

From here on, Patanjali gives us a practical approach to yoga in the form of the Eight Limbs of Yoga.

Bryant

"Upon the destruction of impurities as a result of the practice of yoga, the lamp of knowledge arises. This culminates in discriminative discernment"

As per Vyasa, Viveka or discriminative discernment is needed to remove the cause of the apparent union between Purusha and Prakriti. Patanjali, in this sutra, provides the means in the form of the limbs of yoga for achieving this level of discernment. By the practice of yoga, impurities are destroyed. These impurities, as per Vyasa, are nothing but the five kleshas – avidya (ignorance), asmita (egoism), raga (likes), dvesha (dislikes), and abhinivesha (fear of death) – discussed earlier. When impurities are removed, the light of full knowledge (jnana-dipti) shines through. Another way to look at this is that the impurities of tamas and rajas diminish and the clarity and purity of sattva comes through.

It is to be noted that Patanjali has used the terms Tapas, Swadhyaya, and Ishwara Pranidhana both as part of the definition of Kriya Yoga (sutra 2.1) as well as the last three of the five Niyamas. He, however, gives no indication as to the reason for this repetition.

Discussion

Starting with this sutra, Patanjali shifts the focus from the highly theoretical discussion to a practical approach for the attainment of the goals and objectives of yoga. Because of the wide acceptance of these eight limbs of yoga, Patanjali’s yoga is often referred to as "Ashtanga Yoga" or the "eight limbs of yoga".  In Sutra 2.26 Patanjali stated that the state of "viveka khyati" (discriminative wisdom) is the cause for the elimination of ignorance which leads to the apparent union between Purusha and Prakriti. In the current sutra, he lays out the means to get to that state of viveka khyati.

Swami Veda Bharati describes "jnana dipti" (brilliance of knowledge) as consisting of:

• Shining forth of knowledge regarding the elements such as earth, water etc
• Increased sharpness of senses and elimination of disease
• Gradual attainment of sattvic state
• Gaining knowledge beyond what is learned and contemplated
• Understanding subtlety
• Going to the ultimate reach of buddhi
• Expansion and clarity of knowledge

Vyasa, in his commentary on this sutra, states that the practice of these eight limbs of yoga serves as the cause in two categories – elimination of impurities and attainment of discriminative wisdom. He further goes on to list nine types of causes that are mentioned in the scriptures (unfortunately without any reference). These are:

1. Utpatti: production
2. Sthiti: maintenance
3. Abhivyakti: manifestation, expression
4. Vikāra: transmutation, modification
5. Pratyaya: cognition
6. Āpti: attainment
7. Viyoga: separation
8. Anyatva: otherness, differentiation
9. Dhṛti : sustenance

Vyasa emphasizes that the practice of the limbs of yoga is only applicable as a cause for viyoga (separation of impurities) and apti (attainment of discriminative wisdom).

विवेकख्यातिरविप्लवा हानोपायः॥२६॥

viveka-khyātir-aviplavā hānopāyaḥ ॥26॥

viveka = discrimination; khyaatih = discernment;  aviplavaa = undeviating;  haana = freedom, liberation;  upaayaH = the means

Sw. Satchidananda

“Uninterrupted discriminative discernment is the method for its removal.”

Bryant

“The means to liberation is uninterrupted discriminative discernment”

Discussion

Previously we have seen that suffering (dukham) can be eliminated by removing the cause of suffering, which is avidya (ignorance). In sutra 25, we saw that by removing avidya, purusha can attain the state of “kaivalya” or complete non-identification with buddhi (representing prakriti). In the present sutra, Patanjali provides a means of achieving this goal of eliminating avidya so suffering can be eliminated. This means is “viveka khyati” or discriminatory wisdom with the qualification “a-viplava” (undisturbed or uninterrupted).

Having a clear understanding of the distinction between Purusha and Buddhi (representing Prakriti) is discriminative discernment. Viveka khyati initially is not firmly established since the samskaras of avidya (ignorance) keep surfacing up. It is only over a period of time that these samskaras begin to loose their power and gradually become like “burnt seeds” (dagdha-bija). At that time they become ineffective as they can’t sprout any longer to produce painful vrittis in the mind.

How do you develop discriminative discernment? The commentators recommend deep study of shastras, the ancient scriptures like the Vedas, Upanishads etc. Then follows a long period of contemplation and meditation on the concepts studied. Further development is done through the practice of yoga as mentioned by Patanjali in sutra 2.28. Once this discrimination gets deeply established, the ‘sattva’ guna of the buddhi is not disturbed by rajas and tamas. This eventually leads to the state of kaivalya, final liberation.