Yoga Sutra Study

न विना भावैर्लिङ्गं न लिङ्गेन भावनिर्वृत्तिः ।
लिङ्गाख्यो भावाख्यस्तस्माद् द्विविधः प्रवर्तते सर्गः ॥ ५२ ॥

na vinā bhāvairliṅgaṃ na liṅgena bhāvanirvṛttiḥ ।
liṅgākhyo bhāvākhyastasmād dvividhaḥ pravartate sargaḥ ॥ 52 ॥

Na=not; vinā=without; bhāvaiḥ=dispositions; liṅgaṃ=subtle body; na=not; liṅgena bhāvanirvṛttiḥ=expression of the dispositions; liṅgākhyaḥ=known as linga (subtle); bhāvākhyaḥ=known as the subjective; tasmāt=therefore; dvividhaḥ=two-fold; pravartate=proceeds; sargaḥ=creation or evolution

Without the subjective dispositions, there would be no objective evolution (of the tanmatras); and without the objective, there would be no subjective. Thus proceeds the two-fold evolution, known as the objective and the subjective.

आध्यात्मिकाश्चतस्रः प्रकृत्युपादानकालभाग्याख्याः ।
बाह्या विषयोपरमात् पञ्च, नव तुष्टयोऽभिहिताः ॥ ५० ॥

adhyātmikāścatasraḥ prakṛtyupādānakālabhāgyākhyāḥ ।
bāhyā viṣayoparamāt pañca, nava tuṣṭayo’bhihitāḥ ॥ 50 ॥

ādhyātmikāḥ=internal (related to self); catasraḥ=four; prakṛti=nature; yupādāna=material means; kāla=time; bhāgya=luck; ākhyāḥ=are known as; bāhyāḥ=external; viṣaya=objects; uparamāt=due to abstention; pañca=five; nava=nine; tuṣṭayaḥ=contentment; abhihitāḥ=are mentioned;

The nine types of contentment are:

• 4 internal – Nature, Material means, Time and Luck
• 5 external – non-attachment to the five sense objects

The four types of internal contentment (ādhyātmika) pertain to the inner instrument – intellect, ego and the mind:

Nature (prakṛti): this type of contentment involves an understanding of both the unmanifest (avyakta) and the manifest (vyakta) aspects of prakriti. One understands the nature of evolution and its effects and remains satisfied with this understanding. There is no effort made to understand the nature of Purusha and how Purusha and Prakriti are separate entities. This type of contentment (tuṣṭi) will not lead to liberation (kaivalya).

Material means (upādāna): Becoming an ascetic and using means like wearing saffron clothing, carrying a triple-staff, a begging bowl etc. and staying contented with these means. This type of contentment will also not lead to liberation. In the Bhagavad Gita (3.4¹), Lord Krishna says, “One cannot achieve freedom from karmic reactions by merely abstaining from work, nor can one attain perfection of knowledge by becoming a renunciate.”

Time (kāla): In this type of contentment, one believes that liberation cannot come until the time is ripe and is happy to wait until the time comes. It is similar to believing that a crop can grow successfully when the rains come on time.

Luck (bhāgya): This contentment depends on the belief that neither learning nor any other effort (like becoming a renunciate) can lead to liberation. It is all based on one’s luck which is largely based on past karmas and their fruition.

The above four are listed as internal (ādhyātmika)contentment. The other five listed in the karika are external and depend upon gaining a sense of vairagya (non-attachment) to the objects that are attractive to the five senses. One begins to realize the futility of acquisition (arjana), protection of what is acquired (rakṣaṇa), decay (kṣaya), enjoyment (bhoga), and some form of violence during acquisition (hiṃsā) and develops a sense of non-attachment toward the sense objects. This form of contentment derived from non-attachment to the objects of the five senses is stated as “external”.

[Note 1] न कर्मणामनारम्भान्नैष्कर्म्यं पुरुषोऽश्नुते | न च संन्यसनादेव सिद्धिं समधिगच्छति ||3.4||

na karmaṇām anārambhān naiṣhkarmyaṁ puruṣho ’śhnute| na cha sannyasanād eva siddhiṁ samadhigachchhati ||

One cannot achieve freedom from karmic reactions by merely abstaining from work, nor can one attain perfection of knowledge by becoming a renunciate. (BG 3.4)

भेदस्तमसोऽष्टविधो मोहस्य च, दशविधो महामोहः ।
तामिस्रोऽष्टादशधा, तथा भवत्यन्धतामिस्रः ॥ ४८ ॥

bhedastamaso’ṣṭavidho mohasya ca, daśavidho mahāmohaḥ ।
tāmisro’ṣṭādaśadhā, tathā bhavatyandhatāmisraḥ ॥ 48 ॥

bhedaḥ=divisions; tamasaḥ=of darkness (ignorance); aṣṭavidhaḥ=eight-fold; mohasya=of delusion; ca=and; daśavidhaḥ=ten-fold; mahāmohaḥ=extreme delusion; tāmisraḥ=gloom; aṣṭādaśadhā=eighteen-fold;, tathā=so too; bhavati=is; andhatāmisraḥ=blinding gloom;

False knowledge or ignorance (darkness) is of eight kinds; so too is delusion; extreme delusion is ten-fold; gloom is of eighteen kinds; so too is blinding gloom.

In the previous karika it was mentioned that ignorance (viparyaya) is of five kinds. The present karika provides the names of these five types of ignorance as well as further subdivisions of each.

Some of the commentators have equated the five types of ignorance mentioned here to the five kleshas listed by Patanjali in sutra 2.3¹ of the Yoga Sutras. This is primarily based on the commentary by Vyasa² on this sutra wherein he states, “these kleshas are the five kinds of ignorance (viparyaya). He uses the word “viparyaya” for ignorance which is the same word used in the previous karika, hence the parallel. Here are the five types of ignorance mentioned in this karika along with the corresponding kleshas (in parentheses) mentioned by Patanjali:

1. Tamas (avidyā) – darkness, ignorance (8 kinds)
2. Moha (Asmitā) – delusion (8 kinds)
3. Mahamoha (rāga) – extreme delusion (10 kinds)
4. tāmisraḥ (dvesha) – gloom (18 kinds)
5. andhatāmisraḥ (abhinivesha) – blinding gloom (18 kinds)

The karika does not offer a definition for the words ‘tamas’ or ‘avidya’. Patanjali, in sutra 2.5³ provides this definition for avidya, “Ignorance (avidya) is regarding the impermanent as permanent, the impure as pure, the painful as pleasant, and the non-Self as Self.

The karika simply enumerates the number of types of each of these five kinds of ignorance without stating what they are. Both Gaudapada and Mishra and some of the other commentators seem to have the same common understanding as to what these are:

Tamas (avidyā) – darkness, ignorance (8 kinds): Through ignorance, a person identifies Purusha with these eight elements of Prakriti – unmanifest (mūla prakriti or pradhāna), intellect, ego, and the five subtle sense perceptions (tanmatras), the sense of smell, taste, sight, touch and hearing. This is eight-fold ignorance.

Moha (Asmitā) – delusion (8 kinds): Through deep meditation, a yogi may attain special supernatural powers. Many such powers are mentioned in chapter 3, Vibhuti Pada, of the Yoga Sutras. The eight powers that are commonly mentioned are:

• Aṇimā: Ability to reduce one’s size
• Mahimā: Ability to increase one’s size
• Garimā: Ability to become heavier
• Laghimā: Ability to become lighter
• Prāpti: Ability to Obtain anything
• Prākāmya: Ability to fulfill your desires
• Iṣiṭva: Lordship over creation
• Vaśitva: Control over everything

When a yogi attains one or more of these powers, he gets deluded in believing that these are the highest attainments. Even gods, including Indra, the king of gods, are deluded by the attainment of these eight powers. That is why they have to be reborn in human form so they can strive for enlightenment.

Mahamoha (rāga) – extreme delusion (10 kinds)

Any pleasurable experience through one of the five organs of sense perception (nose/smell, tongue/taste, eyes/sight, skin/tough, and ears/hearing) develops attachment for the object of experience. Through repeated experience of such pleasures, one develops deep attachment for the object of experience. This is termed as mahamoha (rāga). The commentators describe this attachment through the five organs of sense perception at two levels – human and divine. Hence mahāmoha is listed as being of ten types.

tāmisraḥ (dvesha) – gloom (18 kinds)

Any painful experience through one of the five organs of sense perception (nose/smell, tongue/taste, eyes/sight, skin/tough, and ears/hearing) develops aversion for the object of experience. Through repeated experience of such aversion, one develops deep dislike for the object of experience. This is termed as tāmisraḥ (dvesha). In addition to the experience through the five senses, both human and divine, the commentators also add the suffering caused by non-attainment of the eight siddhis (listed above) or a fear of loss of these siddhis. Thus, gloom adds up to a total of 18 types.

andhatāmisraḥ (abhinivesha) – blinding gloom (18 kinds)

Fear of death caused by samskaras of experience of death from previous lives can cause extreme gloom. It is the fear of death that can rob a person from enjoying the objects of the five senses. Similarly, yogis (or divine beings) who have attained the eight siddhis will experience extreme gloom when the fear of death envelops them. Similar to the 18 types mentioned above for tāmisraḥ (gloom), the category of blinding gloom (andhatāmisraḥ) also has 18 types. 

[Note 1] Sutra 2.3: अविद्यास्मितारागद्वेषाभिनिवेशाः क्लेशाः॥३॥ avidyā-asmitā-rāga-dveṣa-abhiniveśaḥ kleśāḥ ॥3॥

Ignorance, ego, attachment, aversion, and clinging to bodily life (fear of death) are the five afflictions (kleshas). (2.3)

[Note 2] Sutra 2.3 (from the commentary by Vyasa): क्लेशा इति पञ्च विपर्यया इत्यर्थः। kleśā iti pañca viparyayā ityarthaḥ।

These kleshas are the five kinds of ignorance (viparyaya).

[Note 3] Sutra 2.5: अनित्याशुचिदुःखानात्मसु नित्यशुचिसुखात्मख्यातिरविद्या॥५॥  anityā-aśuci-duḥkha-anātmasu nitya-śuci-sukha-ātmakhyātir-avidyā ॥5॥

Ignorance is regarding the impermanent as permanent, the impure as pure, the painful as pleasant, and the non-Self as Self. (2.5)

एष प्रत्ययसर्गो विपर्ययाशक्तितुष्टिसिद्ध्याख्यः ।
गुणवैषम्यविमर्द्देन तस्य भेदास्तु पञ्चाशत् ॥ ४६ ॥

eṣa pratyayasargo viparyayāśaktituṣṭisiddhyākhyaḥ ।
guṇavaiṣamyavimarddena tasya bhedāstu pañcāśat ॥ 46 ॥

eṣaḥ=this; pratyaya=buddhi (intellect); sargaḥ=creation; viparyaya=ignorance; aśakti=weakness, infirmity; tuṣṭi=satisfaction, complacency; siddhi=attainment; ākhyaḥ=known as; guṇa=the three gunas; vaiṣamya=inequality; vimarddena=from (mutual) suppression; tasyaits; bhedāḥ=different forms; tu=indeed; pañcāśat=fifty

This is a creation of the intellect, and is characterized by ignorance, incapacity, contentment and attainment. Due to the mutual suppression of the gunas due to their inequality, the different forms add up to fifty.

You may recall that in the Yoga Sutras, in the definition of meditation (dhyana) in sutra 3.2¹, the word pratyaya refers to the cognition or the content in the chitta. However, the word ‘pratyaya’ in this karika has been translated by most commentators as intellect (buddhi). The word ‘sarga’ means creation. Thus, ‘pratyaya-sarga’ is translated as “creation of the buddhi”.

What does the first word “esha” (“this”) in the first line refer to? According to Gaudapada it refers to the group of sixteen – the eight causes (virtue, non-virtue etc.) and their corresponding effects (higher or lower planes of existence etc.) – as given in the previous two karikas. Mishra, on the other hand, includes only the eight attributes of buddhi (dharma, adharma etc.) in the pratyaya-sarga (creation of the intellect). Both Gaudapada and Mishra have referred to these as a “group”, a singular word, to match it with “esha” which is singular. When we look at the previous two karikas, we find no indication that these sixteen, which are simply attributes of buddhi (intellect), form any kind of a group.

The examples that Gaudapada gives for the four attributes in this sutra relate to the function of the buddhi with no reference to the “group” of sixteen. For example, for viparyaya (ignorance), he gives the example of a man who is not able to decide whether what he is seeing is a man or a post. Similarly, Mishra also states that all the four (ignorance etc.) are properties of the buddhi.

I believe the word “esha” refers only to the four characteristics of the intellect mentioned in this karika, and not to the attributes of buddhi (dharma etc.) mentioned in the previous karikas:

viparyaya (ignorance): In the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (sutra 1.8²), viparyaya, meaning wrong knowledge, is mentioned as one of the five vrittis (fluctuations of the mind). In this karika also, the word could mean wrong cognition or ignorance (avidya).

aśakti (weakness, infirmity): this is caused by inability of any of the faculties (five organs of sense perception, five organs of action, mind, intellect) to function properly.

tuṣṭi (satisfaction, complacency): The word “tushti” normally means contentment which is commonly accepted as a virtue. In the yoga sutras, Patanjali has listed “samtosha”, which is a more complete form of “tushti”, as one of the five niyamas. Here, “tushti” is to be taken in a negative sense implying a sense of complacency. Despite having the knowledge and means to attain a certain goal, one may choose not to put any effort saying, “I am OK with what I have and have no desire to put further effort”.

siddhi (attainment of desired goal): Siddhi implies that our efforts and endeavors have resulted in attainment of our desired end result.

Among these four, the first three are considered to be impediments in the path to attain the fourth (siddhi).

To attain any goal, we need:

• The knowledge (opposite of viparyaya) necessary to reach the final objective.
• Fully functional organs (five organs of sense perception, five organs of action, mind, intellect) which is the opposite of “ashakti” (infirmity)
• Willpower and determination to reach the final goal (opposite of “tushti” or complacency).

The second line of the karika states that due to the inequality of the three gunas – sattva, rajas and tamas – they mutually suppress and dominate each other. This gives rise to a total of fifty categories of these four attributes listed in the karika.

Further categorization of these four will be discussed in the subsequent four karikas.

Notes 

[1] तत्र प्रत्ययैकतानता ध्यानम्॥२॥ tatra pratyaya ekatānatā dhyānam ॥2॥
Dhyana (meditation) is the continuous flow of cognition toward that object. (3.2)

[2] विपर्ययो मिथ्याज्ञानमतद्रूपप्रतिष्ठम्॥८॥ viparyayo mithyā-jñānam-atadrūpa pratiṣṭham ॥8॥
Misconception (viparyaya) is knowledge which is not based on the true form of its object and is thus erroneous. (1.8)

धर्मेण गमनमूर्ध्वं गमनमधस्ताद् भवत्यधर्मेण ।
ज्ञानेन चापवर्गो विपर्ययादिष्यते बन्धः ॥ ४४ ॥

dharmeṇa gamanamūrdhvaṁ gamanamadhastād bhavatyadharmeṇa ।
jñānena cāpavargo viparyayādiṣyate bandhaḥ ॥ 44 ॥

Dharmeṇa=through dharma (virtue); gamanam=movement; ūrdhvaṁ=upward; gamanam=movement; adhastāt=downward; bhavati=happens; adharmeṇa=through non-virtuous deeds; jñānena=by knowledge; ca=and; apavargaḥ=liberation; viparyayāt=from the reverse (of knowledge); iṣyate=attained (lit. desired); bandhaḥ=bondage

By virtue, one attains ascent to higher planes; by non-virtue (vice), descent to the lower planes; from wisdom is attained liberation; and bondage from the reverse (ignorance).

In karika 42 we saw that the subtle body, through association with instrumental causes and their effects, assumes different roles during transmigration. In the present karika and the next, the consequences of each bhava are explained.

Again, interpretation of the karika is left to the imagination of the commentators. The bhava of virtue (dharma) leads to ‘upward’ movement (transmigration into higher planes). Gaudapada lists eight higher regions, those of Brahmā, Prajāpati, Soma, Indra, Gandharvas, Yakshas, Rākshasas, and Pishāchas. These are celestial beings mentioned in the ancient Pauranic literature. Non-virtue (adharma) leads to movement to lower planes belonging to animals, birds, reptiles, and immobile objects.

According to another interpretation, the seven higher planes are: Bhūḥ, Bhuvah, Svaḥ, Mahaḥ, Jana, Tapas and Satya. The seven lower planes, one below the other, are: Atala, Vitala, Sutala, Rasātala, Talātala, Mahātala and Pātāla.

Knowledge (jnana) leads to liberation whereas ignorance (avidya) leads to bondage which results in cycles of transmigration. Knowledge refers to understanding the distinction between Purusha and Prakriti. Ignorance (avidya) implies identifying Purusha with one or more of the 23 elements that have evolved from Mula Prakriti.

Mishra talks about three categories of bondage

prākṛtika (प्राकृतिक) – related to Mula Prakriti: those who, unaware of the independence of Purusha, dwell on Mula Prakriti attain prākṛtika bondage;

vaikṛtika (वैकृतिक) – related to the 23 evolutes of Prakriti: those who dwell on the senses, mind, ego and the intellect attain vaikṛtika bondage;

dākṣaṇika (दाक्षणिक) – those who perform sacrificial offerings or undertake charitable activities, primarily for personal gain, suffer from this type of bondage.