Yoga Sutra Study

स्वां स्वां प्रतिपद्यन्ते परस्पराकूतहेतुकां वृत्तिम् ।
पुरुषार्था एव हेतुर्न केनचित्कार्यते करणम् ॥ ३१ ॥

svāṁ svāṁ pratipadyante parasparākūtahetukāṁ vṛttim ।
puruṣārthā eva heturna kenacitkāryate karaṇam ॥ 31 ॥

svāṁ svāṁ=their respective; pratipadyante=enter into; paraspara=mutual; ākūta=intention; hetukāṁ=for the purpose of; vṛttim=function; puruṣārthā=serving the goal of Purusha; eva=alone; hetuḥ=purpose; na=not; kenacit=by anyone; kāryate=made to act; karaṇam=organ

They (internal and external sense organs) enter into their respective functions being incited by their mutual purpose. The main motive is to serve the purpose of Purusha. The organ is not made to act by anything (or anyone) else.

Each of the organs – the three internal organs (mind, ego and intellect), the five organs of action and the five organs of perception – performs its own respective functions. It is as if through mutual impulse or understanding, each organ is aware of its role. V. Mishra gives the example of a royal army which has soldiers who have been assigned specific roles. Some wield a lance, some a gun, some others a mace etc. They all perform their respective roles with the common purpose of achieving victory for their leader, the king. In a similar manner, all the organs perform their respective functions in order to serve the purpose of Purusha. Patanjali, in yoga sutra 2.18, mentions that the role of Prakriti is to fulfill the purpose of Purusha which is to provide experience and final liberation (bhoga and apavarga) for the Purusha.

The karika also states that the organs are not driven to act by any other force. This implies that fulfilling the purpose of Purusha is the only driving factor for the functioning of the organs. According to some commentators it implies that no conscious force like Ishvara (God) or any other divine force is responsible for the organs to perform their job. As we know, Prakriti and all its manifest organs have no consciousness of their own. However, they are able to do their respective functions due to the “reflected” consciousness of Purusha.  

स्वालक्षण्यं वृत्तिस्त्रयस्य सैषा भवत्यसामान्या ।
सामान्यकरणवृत्तिः प्राणाद्या वायवः पञ्च ॥ २९ ॥

svālakṣaṇyaṁ vṛttistrayasya saiṣā bhavatyasāmānyā ।
sāmānyakaraṇavṛttiḥ prāṇādyā vāyavaḥ pañca ॥ 29 ॥

svālakṣaṇyaṁ=their own characteristics; vṛttiḥ=its respective function; trayasya=of the three (mind, ego, intellect); sā=that (vritti); eṣā=that (pointing to the same vritti); bhavati=is; asāmānyā=peculiar (to each); sāmānyā=common; karaṇa=of the instruments; vṛttiḥ=function; prāṇādyāḥ=prana etc.; vāyavaḥ=airs (pranas) pañca=five

Of the three (internal instruments – mind, ego, intellect) the functions are their respective characteristics; these are peculiar to each. The common functions of the three instruments are “prana” and the rest of the five vital airs.

Functions of the three inner instruments (antah-karana) – intellect, ego and the mind – are described in this karika. The karika states that the characteristics of the three that have been described earlier are also their functions. These functions are specific (asāmānyā ) to each of the three instruments. In karika 23, the nature of the intellect was defined as “ascertainment” (adhyavasāya) which is also its function. Similarly, in karika 24, the nature of the ego was given as “self-assertion” (abhimāna) which is also its function. In karika 27, the nature, and thus the function, of the mind was given as “determination” (saṁkalpaka).

Let’s take an example to understand how these three internal organs work together. Let’s say I am looking at a mango. The eyes, organ of perception, bring an image of the mango to the mind. The mind has to look into the memory to compare the image to something similar experienced previously. Based on the memory it makes the determination that it is a mango and hands it over to the ego. The ego goes back into the memory and notices that the previous experience was pleasant, and so, it would like to eat the mango. It then passes the information to the intellect. As we all know, there is always a struggle that goes on between the ego and the intellect. If the ego is dominant, the intellect may follow the “directive” from the ego and decide to eat the mango. On the other hand, if the intellect is dominant, it will analyze the situation and then decide whether to eat the mango or not. If I am diabetic, the intellect may decide not to eat the mango because of its sugar content. If all is well, it may decide to eat and enjoy the mango.

After describing the function specific to each of the three inner instruments, in the second part of the verse, the karika talks about the function that is common to all three. That function is the activity of the five vital airs, the prana etc. These vital airs are essential for the existence and functioning of the three internal organs. V. Mishra provides the location of the five vital airs as follows:

• Prana: located at the tip of the nose, the heart, the navel, feet and the thumb
• Apana: located at the neck, the back, the feet, the anus, the procreative organ, and the sides
• Samana: in the heart, the navel and the joints
• Udana: in the heart, throat, palate, head and between the eyebrows
• Vyana: in the skin

Gaudapada goes on to describe their function as follows:

• Prana: perceptible in the mouth and the nose, it gives vitality and motion to all organs.
• Apana: has its movement downwards.
• Samana: situated in the central part of the body, it circulates the nutrients throughout the body.
• Udana: has its movement upwards; it is in the space between the navel and the head.
• Vyana: pervades the entire body.

There is no common understanding among the commentators as to whether the function of the pranas is common to all thirteen organs or only the three inner instruments mentioned earlier. The karika seems to imply the latter. However, given that these five airs are essential for the survival and function of all the thirteen organs, I tend to agree with the former.

उभयात्मकमत्र मनः संकल्पकमिन्द्रियं च साधर्म्यात् ।
गुणपरिणामविशेषान्नानात्वं बाह्यभेदाश्च ॥ २७ ॥

ubhayātmakamatra manaḥ saṁkalpakamindriyaṁ ca sādharmyāt ।
guṇapariṇāmaviśeṣānnānātvaṁ bāhyabhedāśca ॥ 27 ॥

Ubhayātmakam=possessing the nature of both; atra=here (related to the sense organs); manaḥ=mind; saṁkalpakam=determinative, ponders over; indriyaṁ=sense organ; ca=and; sādharmyāt=because of common properties; guṇa=three gunas; pariṇāma=transformation; viśeṣāt=special; nānātvaṁ=variety; bāhyabhedāḥ=due to difference of external forms; ca=and

Of the sense organs, the mind possesses the nature of both (the sensory and motor organs). It is the deliberating principle. It is also called a sense organ since it possesses the properties common to the sense organs. This diversity of the organs and the diversities of the external objects arise from the specific modifications of the three gunas.

Having listed the five organs of sense perception and the five organs of action in the previous karika, the present karika discusses the nature of the eleventh sense organ, the mind (manas).

The word ubhayātmakam in the first line means “possessing the nature of both”. What is the word “both” referring to in this karika? According to both Gaudapada and Mishra it points to the fact that since the mind is connected to the organs of sense perception as well as to the organs of action, it is similar to both.

A couple of other authors have interpreted the first line differently. The mind is ubhayātmakam since the sentence points to two attributes of the mind:

• It is “sankalpakam” or determining/deliberative.
• It is a sense organ because it shares properties with both – organs of action and the organs of perception.

Looking at the structure of the sentence, I favor the second interpretation.

The mind is determinative (saṁkalpakam) as it offers a clear cognition of the item perceived through one of the sense organs. The sense organs themselves are merely instruments of perception. For example, the eyes can only present an image of the object being seen. It is the mind that determines whether the item perceived is a fruit, a flower or some other item. Based on previously experienced objects, the mind can determine that the fruit perceived is a mango or the flower is a rose etc.

Another reason for the mind to be considered as having qualities similar to both the sets of five is that they have all evolved from the sattvic attribute of ego (ahamkara).

The second line of the karika pertains to the term “nanattva” (variety/multifariousness) being the result of different transformations of the three gunas – sattva, rajas and tams. Does this variety refer to:

• The ten sense organs being different? Or,
• Just the mind having the ability to connect with ten different organs?
• Does it include the other two organs – ego and the intellect?

Commentators seem to have different views on these questions. Evolution of the eleven sense organs from the sattvic nature of ahamkara has already been mentioned. So, I tend to agree with the assertion that the variety of the mind refers to its ability to connect with the ten sense organs. As we know, the three gunas are in a state of constant change and the dominance of one over the other two keeps shifting from moment to moment. Thus, the five perceptions and the five actions may, with the help of the ego and the intellect, be different depending on which guna is dominant at a given time.

The variety in the external objects (bāhyabhedāḥ) which represent a mix of the five gross elements (earth, water, fire, air and ether) is also attributed to the variations in dominance of the three gunas.

An alternative reading suggests that this variety of the mind is due to “grāhyabhedāt” (due to the difference in the objects perceived). Perception of diverse objects does require diverse and suitable organs.

सात्त्विक एकादशकः प्रवर्तते वैकृतादहङ्कारात् ।
भूतादेस्तन्मात्रः स तामसः, तैजसादुभयम् ॥ २५ ॥

sāttvika ekādaśakaḥ pravartate vaikṛtādahaṅkārāt ।
bhūtādestanmātraḥ sa tāmasaḥ, taijasādubhayam ॥ 25 ॥

sāttvikaḥ=dominated by sattva guna; ekādaśakaḥ=eleven-fold set; pravartate=proceeds; vaikṛtāt=from the Vaikrita (modified) form of; ahaṅkārāt=I-principle (ego); bhūtādeḥ=(proceed) from the Bhutadi form of ego; tanmātraḥ=five subtle elements; saḥ=that; tāmasaḥ=of the nature of guna tamas; taijasāt=from the Taijas (bright) form of ego – rajas guna; ubhayam=both

From the Vaikrita form of ahamkara proceeds the eleven-fold set characterized by sattva guna; from the Bhutadi form of ahamkara proceed the five subtle elements (tanmatras) characterized by the tamas guna. Both these proceed from the Taijas form of ahamkara characterized by the rajas guna.

From the form of ahamkara named as Vaikrita (literally, modified) by the ancient teachers proceeds the set of eleven sense organs (five organs of perception, five organs of action and the mind). In the vaikrita ahamkara, sattva guna is dominant. Dominance of sattva guna is essential:

• for the proper ascertainment by the buddhi (intellect) through the five organs of sense perception, and
• for initiating the proper motor action through the five organs of action
• for the manas (mind) to be able to interact with both these sets of five

From the form of ahamkara named as Bhutadi (literally, the gross elements etc.) by the scholars, in which tamas guna is dominant, proceeds the evolution of the five tanmatras (five subtle senses – smell, taste, touch, sight and hearing). As we know, each of the five tanmatras is responsible for the evolution of the corresponding gross elements. Compared to all the other elements, the gross elements are tamasic in nature. That is why their evolution is caused by the form of ahamkara dominated by tamas guna.

As we have seen before, both sattva and tamas are not able to perform any function without the help of rajas which abounds in action and mobility. The rajasic form of ahamkara named Taijas (liteally, bright) by the scholars is thus responsible for the evolution of both sattvic and rajasic branches as given above.

अध्यवसायो बुद्धिर्धर्मो ज्ञानं विराग ऐश्वर्यम् ।
सात्त्विकमेतद्रूपं तामसमस्माद्विपर्यस्तम् ॥ २३ ॥

adhyavasāyo buddhirdharmo jñānaṁ virāga aiśvaryam ।
sāttvikametadrūpaṁ tāmasamasmādviparyastam ॥ 23 ॥

adhyavasāyaḥ=ascertainment; buddhiḥ=intellect; dharmaḥ=virtue; jñānaṁ=wisdom; virāga=dispassion; aiśvaryam=lordliness; sāttvikam=when sattva guna dominates; etadrūpaṁ=is of the nature of; tāmasam=when tamas guna dominates; asmāt=from this; viparyastam=opposite

Buddhi is the determining principle. It is of the nature of virtue, knowledge, non-attachment, and lordly powers when sattva dominates. The reverse is true when tamas is dominant.

As we have seen earlier, the first evolute from the Mula Prakriti is the intellect (also known as Mahat or buddhi). The present verse defines the intellect as ‘adhyavasāya’. The word “adhyavasāya” has multiple meanings. Some of the meanings found in the dictionary that seem more relevant to our discussion are ‘determination, resolution, mental effort, apprehension, ascertainment’. V. Mishra uses the terms “ascertainment or will” and Gaugapada uses “ascertainment, determination”. It is the job of the intellect to determine the nature of the current experience. For example, based on input received through one of the five sense organs, it might say, “what I am seeing is a flower”, or “what I am hearing is the sound of a drum”. Or, based on what comes up in the chitta from the memory it might say, “what I am experiencing is anger or jealousy etc.” The intellect may also make the determination as to what the next action may be, “pluck or smell the flower” or, “let me hurt the other person who made me angry”.

The verse further states that the intellect can have any of the eight attributes, four of these are driven by the sattva guna and the other four, representing their opposites, are driven by the tamas guna.

The attributes driven by sattva are:

• Dharma (righteousness or virtue)
• Jnana (knowledge)
• Viraga (dispassion)
• Aishwarya (lordly powers)

The attributes driven by tamas guna are the opposites of the above four:

• Adharma (non-righteousness)
• Ajnana (ignorance)
• Raga (attachment)
• Anaishwarya (lack of power, control)

Let’s take a closer look at these four attributes (based on commentaries by Mishra and Gaudapada)

Dharma (righteousness or virtue)

Dharma involves doing good, benevolent deeds, deeds fulfilling religious and moral obligations. Dharmic activities may include performing sacrificial rites (yajna) and charitable work. These activities can bring about both worldly prosperity (abhyudaya) and also divine bliss (niḥśreyas). Activities that may eventually lead to self-realization involve following the guidelines of yamas and niyamas as given in the Yoga Sutras by Patanjali. The five yamas are: Ahimsā (non-injury), Satya (truthfulness), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacharya (continence), Aparigraha (non-hoarding). The five niyamas are: śauca (cleanliness), saṁtoṣa (contentment), tapas (austerity), svādhyāy (self-study), īśvara praṇidhāna (surrender to God).

Jnana (knowledge)

Knowledge is of two types – external and internal. External knowledge relates to understanding the content of ancient texts like the Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas etc. It also includes knowledge related to all aspects of material existence. Internal knowledge is the true knowledge which relates to the understanding of the separation between Purusha (pure consciousness) and Prakriti (the material counterpart comprising of the three gunas – sattva, rajas and tamas). This knowledge alone can lead to liberation (kaivalya).

Viraga (dispassion)

In the Yoga Sutras, Patanjali has mentioned two levels of dispassion – lower and higher. Below are the two sutras:

“The consciousness of self-mastery in one who is free from craving for objects seen or heard about (described in the scriptures) is non-attachment.” (sutra 1.15) – read my blog here for more disscussion.

“Supreme detachment is attained when there is non-thirst for even the three gunas (sattva, rajas and tamas) due to the realization of Purusha (true Self).” (sutra 1.16) – read my blog here for more discussion

There are four stages of dispassion – yatamāna, vyatireka, ekendriya and vaśīkāra.

yatamāna (initial endeavor): As we know, the mind is constantly seeking gratification by directing the sense organs outward toward their objects of attraction. This desire for sense gratification is driven by the “impurities” of the mind like anger, lust, craving, greed, jealousy etc. When one realizes the futility of sense gratification and begins to make an effort to cleanse the mind (through practices like meditation etc.), that initial effort is called yatamāna. Through this initial endeavor, partial success may be gained by eliminating some of the sense attachments.

vyatireka (ascertainment): In the second stage, one begins to ascertain as to what has been achieved and what remains to be done. For example, with the initial effort (yatamāna), you may have given up the desire to spend unnecessary time in front of the television. However, you may still be carrying a strong desire to eat some heavy dessert after each meal. This level of ascertainment is termed “vyatireka”.

ekendriya (one sense organ): When the sense organs are under control and they are unwilling to run after their respective objects, there may still be deep-seated hidden desires (vasanas) in the chitta. This is known as the ekendriya stage.

vaśīkāra (total control): when even this latent desire is eliminated, then one attains self-mastery over cravings for objects seen or heard about. As stated above (sutra 1.15), Patanjali uses the term “vaśīkāra-saṁjṇā” for this level of dispassion. He, of course, goes on to describe the highest level of dispassion in sutra 1.16 (see above).

Aishwarya (lordly power)

Most commentators, when describing this attribute of the intellect, talk about the eight siddhis (supernormal attainments alluded to in the yoga sutras (sutra 3.45) as well). They are:

• aṇimā (become small): one may be able to enter dense matter like stone
• laghimā (lightness): one can levitate
• mahimā (to become very large)
• prāpti (the ability to reach anywhere)
• prākāmya (to fulfil one’s desires)
• īśītvam (sovereignty over all material nature)
• vaśītva (mastery and total control over all elements)
• kāmāvasāyitā (garimā); strong will through which a yogi can dictate the course of events rather than being a victim of what has been ordained through karma.

Not much needs to be added in the case when tamas guna dominates and the intellect has attributes which are just the opposite of the four described above – adharma (doing ignoble deeds), ignorance (lack of knowledge), anaishwarya (lack of power), and raga (attachment, lack of dispassion).