Yoga Sutra Study

त्रिगुणमविवेकि विषयः सामान्यमचेतनं प्रसवधर्मि ।
व्यक्तं तथा प्रधानं, तद्विपरीतस्तथा च पुमान् ॥ ११ ॥

triguṇamaviveki viṣayaḥ sāmānyamacetanaṁ prasavadharmi ।
vyaktaṁ tathā pradhānaṁ, tadviparītastathā ca pumān ॥ 11 ॥

Triguṇam=having the three gunas – sattva, rajas, tamas; aviveki=non-discriminative; viṣayaḥ=object of experience; sāmānyam=common; acetanaṁ=without consciousness; prasavadharmi=productive; vyaktaṁ=manifested; tathā=similar; pradhānaṁ=prakriti; tadviparītaḥ=the reverse of this; tathā=similar; ca=and; pumān=Purusha

The manifest is composed of the three gunas (sattva, rajas and tamas), is indiscriminative, objective, common, without consciousness, and productive. Prakriti (Pradhana) is also like this. Purusha, though similar in some ways, is yet the reverse of all these mentioned in this karika.

In this karika, we are presented with those attributes which are common to both the manifest (23 elements of vyakta) and unmanifest (mula prakriti). However, these attributes cannot be applied to Purusha. 

Triguṇam (having the three gunas – sattva, rajas, tamas): The concept of the three gunas is a key contribution of the Samkhya philosophy. Every entity within Prakriti , the mula prakriti as well as the 23 elements, is a composite of the three gunas. As given in karika #12, sattva is identified with pleasure, rajas with pain and tamas with delusion or dejection.

aviveki (non-discriminative): there doesn’t seem to be an agreement among the commentators as to what this attribute might imply. The word “viveka” means the power to discriminate. Aviveki is one who does not possess such a power. One way of looking at it is that Prakriti and all the manifest elements are “aviveki” as they can function only because of the reflected consciousness from the Purusha.

I am reproducing below the English translation of the commentary by two of the most recognized commentators:

Vachaspati Mishra: “Indistinguishable because just as Pradhana cannot be distinguished from itself, so also Mahat and the rest cannot be distinguished from Pradhāna, because of their being identical with Pradhāna; or, indistinguisability may mean the characteristic of creating things by uniting together; because none of them is capable of evolving even its own product singly but only by uniting together.”

Gaudapada: “It is not possible to discriminate as this is the Manifest and these are the Attributes, as this is a bull and this is a horse, for those which are the Attributes are the Manifest, and that which is the Manifest are the Attributes.”

As you can see, even they don’t seem to be sure of what this attribute really means.

The attribute is common to both unmanifest and manifest.

viṣayaḥ (object of experience): All the elements in the manifest domain are objects of experience, enjoyment and are knowable. Once apprehended by the buddhi, objects are presented to the Purusha.

sāmānyam (common): the manifest and the unmanifest are both available to all the Purushas for experience and are hence common to all.

acetanaṁ (without consciousness): As mentioned earlier, only Purusha represents consciousness. Mula Prakriti and the manifest domain are non-conscious. They function with the reflected consciousness from Purusha.

prasavadharmi (productive): The word “prasava” means to give birth. As mentioned in karika #3, seven of the elements in the manifest domain can produce other elements. From the Mula Prakriti comes buddhi, from buddhi is produced ego (ahamkara), from the ego are produced the eleven organs and the five tanmatras, and the tanmatras further produce the five gross elements. Thus, being productive is their basic nature (dharma).

The last part of the karika says that Purusha, even though it has some similarities with Prakriti (to be listed later on), is reverse of the attributes mentioned in this karika. That is, the attributes mentioned above, cannot be applied to the Purusha.

असदकरणादुपादानग्रहणात्, सर्वसम्भवाभावात् ।
शक्तस्य शक्यकरणात्, कारणभावाच्च, सत्कार्यम् ॥९ ॥

asadakaraṇādupādānagrahaṇāt, sarvasambhavābhāvāt ।
śaktasya śakyakaraṇāt, kāraṇabhāvācca, satkāryam ॥9 ॥

Asat=non-existent; akaraṇāt=due to non-materialization; upādāna=material cause; grahaṇāt=selection of; sarvasambhava=production of everything; abhāvāt=due to absence; śaktasya=of the competent; śakya=possible; karaṇāt=through materialization; kāraṇabhāvāt=effects being of the same essence as the cause; ca=and; satkāryam=the effects pre-exist

The effect is always existent (in the cause), because (1) what is non-existent cannot be brought into existence; (2) effects need appropriate material cause; (3) all effects are not producible from all causes; (4) an efficient cause can produce only that for which it has capability; (5) effect is of the same essence as the cause.

satkāryavāda (सत्कार्यवाद्) is one of the main concepts presented in the Samkhya philosophy. According to this theory, the effect is already pre-existent in the cause. For example, milk being the cause, its effect yogurt pre-exists in the milk. Based on a certain specific trigger, the effect gets manifested from the cause. The philosophy of evolution of all aspects of this material universe as given in Samkhya is based on this principle. There are other systems of thought, for example Buddhism, which do not subscribe to this ideology.

In the present karika, several reasons are provided that establish the concept of satkāryavāda.

• asadakaraṇāt – non-existent cannot be brought into existence. For example, oil, which is non-existent in sand cannot be produced by pressing sand. Sesame oil can only be produced from sesame seeds.
• upādānagrahaṇāt – An appropriate cause is needed to bring about an effect. For example, yogurt can only be produced from milk, not water. There is a definite relationship that exists between the cause (milk) and effect (yogurt).
• sarvasambhavābhāvāt – Everything cannot be produced from everything or everywhere. Clay cannot produce gold.
• śaktasya śakyakaraṇāt – An entity can produce something only when it is competent to do so. A competent potter can produce a jug only through the use of clay.
• kāraṇabhāvāt – the effect is of the nature of the cause. Cloth and the thread that it is made from are of the same nature.

The main theme in Samkhya is that the manifestation of the material entities happens because the effect is inherent in the cause. So, manifestation of the 23 elements starting with Mahat (buddhi/intellect) etc. is possible because these are inherent in the cause, the Mula Prakriti (unmanifest Prakriti) which is the root cause of all creation.

In the Bhagavad Gita also, the same theme is presented in verse 2.16.

nāsato vidyate bhāvo nābhāvo vidyate sataḥ
ubhayorapi dṛiṣhṭo ’nta stvanayos tattva-darśhibhiḥ (Gita 2.16)

“Those who are seers of the truth have concluded that of the nonexistent there is no endurance, and of the existent there is no cessation. This Seers have concluded by studying the nature of both.”

Karika 7

अतिदूरात् सामीप्यादिन्द्रियाघातान्मनोऽनवस्थानात् ।
सौक्ष्म्याद् व्यवधानादभिभवात् समानाभिहाराच्च ॥ ७ ॥

atidūrāt sāmīpyādindriyāghātānmano’navasthānāt ।
saukṣmyād vyavadhānādabhibhavāt samānābhihārācca ॥ 7 ॥

Atidūrāt=due to excessive distance; sāmīpyāt=being too close; indriya=the senses; ghātāt=due to impairment; mano’navasthānāt=absent-mindedness;
saukṣmyād=due to subtlety; vyavadhānāt=due to obstruction; abhibhavāt=due to suppression (by others); samāna=similar; abhihārāt= intermixture; ca=and;

Knowledge of objects that exist may not be available for the following reasons: Excessive distance, extreme proximity, sense impairment, absentmindedness, minuteness, obstruction, suppression by other objects, and intermixture with similar objects.

One of the main themes in Samkhya is to prove that even though both Purusha and Prakriti are not available for direct perception through the five senses, there existence cannot be denied. In this karika, we are presented with several reasons as to why an object, even though existent, may not be perceptible to the sense organs.

• Excessive distance (Atidūrāt): two friends living in distant countries; a bird flying high in the sky
• Extreme proximity (sāmīpyāt): inability to see your own eyelids
• Sense impairment (indriya ghātāt): blind man can’t see, deaf can’t hear
• Absentmindedness (mano’navasthānāt): when distracted, one can’t understand however well explained
• Minuteness, subtlety (saukṣmyāt): particles of smoke, air, water, frost etc., though present are not seen
• Obstruction (vyavadhānāt): Can’t see objects obstructed by a wall
• Suppression by other objects (abhibhavāt): planets and stars not visible during day, suppressed by the brilliance of the sun
• Intermixture with similar objects (samāna abhihārāt): a bean mixed in a heap of beans, a bird in a group of birds

Kārikā 5

प्रतिविषयाध्यवसायो दृष्टं, त्रिविधमनुमानमाख्यातम् ।
तल्लिङ्गलिङ्गिपूर्वकम्, आप्तश्रुतिराप्तवचनं च ॥ ५ ॥

prativiṣayādhyavasāyo dṛṣṭaṁ, trividhamanumānamākhyātam ।
talliṅgaliṅgipūrvakam, āptaśrutirāptavacanaṁ ca ॥ 5 ॥

Prati=every; viṣaya=object of the senses; adhyavasāyo=ascertainment; dṛṣṭaṁ=perceived (thru senses); trividham=three-fold; anumānam=inference; ākhyātam=is mentioned as; tat=that; liṅga=mark, pointer; liṅgi=what is being pointed to; pūrvakam=preceded by; āptaśrutiḥ=trustworthy person and the Vedas; āptavacanaṁ=trustworthy testimony; ca=and

Direct perception is the ascertainment of objects by their respective senses. Inference is mentioned as being of three kinds and is the result of the knowledge of linga (the characteristic mark) and the lingi (possessor of this mark). Valid testimony is the statement of a trustworthy person and the Vedas.

In Karika #4, we saw that the means of right knowledge (pramāṇa) are direct perception, inference, and valid testimony. In Karika #5 we are presented with more details related to these three means of pramāṇa.

Direct perception (dṛṣṭaṁ)

Direct perception (dṛṣṭaṁ) is the ascertainment of objects perceived through their respective senses. Objects are composed of the five great elements – earth, water, fire, air, and ether. These objects create an impression on the respective sense organs – nose, tongue, eyes, skin, and ears. These organs create the five corresponding sense perceptions – smell, taste, sight, touch, and hearing. These perceptions are presented to the “inner instrument” comprising of the mind (manas), ego (ahamkara), and the intellect (buddhi). It is the buddhi that finally makes the determination as to the nature of the object perceived and the action to be taken in response. Of course, everything that the buddhi perceives is being witnessed by the Purusha. Mind (manas) and the intellect (buddhi), with no consciousness of their own, need the reflected consciousness from the Purusha to perform any of their functions including processing of perception through the five senses.

Direct perception provides specific information about the object. If you see a man, you know that it is “John”. All the five senses must experience the object the same way all the time. At a deeper level, in their deep states of meditation, the advanced yogis can get a “direct perception” of their own true Self. This realization is usually referred to as “self-realization”.

As you may recall, in the Yoga Sutras, Patanjali also presents the same three types of pramāṇa. However, he uses the term “pratyaksha” instead of dṛṣṭaṁ, the term used in the karika.

Inference (anumāna)

In a situation when direct perception is not available, the second type of right knowledge called anumāna (inference) is used. Inference provides generic information about what is perceived. If you hear footsteps, you may infer that a man is walking. As per the Nyaya system of philosophy, there are five steps of inferential logic: 

• Establish the thesis (pratijñā): there is fire at the mountain
• State the cause (hetu): because I see smoke there
• State the universal rule (udāharaṇa): wherever there is smoke, there is fire (in the kitchen, for example)
• Applies in this case (upnayana): there is smoke on the mountain
• Conclusion (nigamana): therefore, the mountain has fire

Inference (anumāna) is dependent on something that has been experienced in the past based on direct perception. The Karika simply states that there are three types of inference without listing them. The assumption is that the reader is familiar with these three which are enumerated in the Nyaya philosophy as follows:

• Pūrvavat – when an inference is made from a perceived cause about an effect that is yet to come. For example, future rain is inferred by seeing thick, dark clouds.
• Sheshavat – when an inference is made about the cause of something perceived at the present moment as the effect. For example, recent rain is inferred by the sight of fast flowing, muddy river water.
• Samanyato-drishtam – when inference is made from something that is commonly known. Inference of fire by seeing smoke on a distant hill is a common example of this category.

The karika also mentions that inference is “liṅga-liṅgi-pūrvakam”; i.e., inference is preceded or established by a characteristic mark (liṅga) and the possessor of this mark (liṅgi). In the classical example of “smoke on the hill indicates fire there”, smoke is the liṅga, fire is the liṅgi and the hill, where the observation is being made is called the “paksha”. The common example of this is the kitchen where we see this liṅga-liṅgi connection between fire and smoke all the time.

Valid testimony (āpta-vachanam)

Usually, the word of the Vedas (shruti), the most ancient scriptures, is considered valid testimony . The wisdom contained in the Vedas is considered “apaurusheya” (not created by human mind) as it was “revealed” to the rishis (sages) in their deep states of meditation. These revelations are thus considered as trustworthy. Similarly, words of other texts, such as Upanishads, Puranas etc., are also trustworthy as they have Vedas as their source. Valid testimony could also represent words by a trustworthy person.

In the Yoga Sutras (sutra 1.7), Patanjali uses the term “āgamāḥ” in place of āpta-vachanam or āpta-shruti.

मूलप्रकृतिरविकृतिर्महदाद्याः प्रकृतिविकृतयः सप्त ।
षोडशकस्तु विकारो न प्रकृतिर्न विकृतिः पुरुषः ॥ ३॥

mūlaprakṛtiravikṛtirmahadādyāḥ prakṛtivikṛtayaḥ sapta ।
ṣoḍaśakastu vikāro na prakṛtirna vikṛtiḥ puruṣaḥ ॥ 3॥

Mūlaprakṛtiḥ=unmanifest Prakriti; avikṛtiḥ=non-evolute, not an effect; mahat=buddhi (intellect); ādyāḥ=etc.; prakṛtivikṛtayaḥ=cause and effect; sapta =seven; ṣoḍaśakaḥ=sixteen; tu=indeed; vikāro=effect only; na=not; prakṛtiḥ=cause; na=nor; vikṛtiḥ=effect; puruṣaḥ=Purusha

Mula Prakriti (Primal nature) is not an evolute (vikriti/effect). Mahat (intellect) etc. (the seven), are both evolvent (prakriti/cause) and evolutes (vikriti/effect). Sixteen of the tattvas (elements) are only evolutes (effect). Purusha (consciousness) is neither an evolute nor an evolvent.

The current kārikā groups the 25 elements into four broad categories:

• Mula Prakriti (Primal nature)
• Prakriti (cause/evolvent)
• vikriti (evolutes/effect)
• Neither an evolute (vikriti) nor an evolvent (Prakriti)

The Mula Prakriti, also known as Pradhāna, is the root cause of the evolution of the 23 elements and this entire creation. It is mentioned as “causeless” that is, it is not an effect from any other source. The word “root” indicates that it is at the root of all creation.

The group of seven, Mahat (buddhi) etc., are both evolvent (prakriti/cause) and evolutes (vikriti/effect). This group consists of Mahat (buddhi/intellect), ahaṃkāra (ego) and the five tanmātras (subtle sense perceptions) – smell, touch, taste, sight and hearing.

Mahat (buddhi) is an evolute from Mula Prakriti and also the cause for Ahaṃkāra (ego). Ahaṃkāra is an evolute from buddhi and also the cause for the five tanmātras. The five tanmātras, in turn, are the cause of the five great elements, as follows:

1. Shabda (sound) tanmatra is an evolute from Ahaṃkāra and the cause for the element of ākāsha (space)
2. Sparsha (touch) tanmatra is an evolute from Ahaṃkāra and the cause for the element of vāyu (air)
3. Gandha (smell) tanmatra is an evolute from Ahaṃkāra and the cause for the element of prithivi (earth)
4. Rūpa (sight) tanmatra is an evolute from Ahaṃkāra and the cause for the element of agni (fire)
5. Rasa (taste) tanmatra is an evolute from Ahaṃkāra and the cause for the element of āpaḥ (water)

Thus, the above seven are both prakriti (evolvent/cause) and vikriti (evolute/effect).

The group of sixteen – five organs of sense perception, five organs of action, five great elements and the mind – are vikriti (evolutes) only.

Purusha is neither prakriti (cause) nor vikriti (effect).