As some of you are aware, the YSP SG has been conducting its meetings for over a year now. The objective of the group is to develop a deeper understanding of the underlying philosophy of yoga as propounded by sage Patajali in the Yoga Sutras. In the first go-round, we discussed the English translation of each sutra by various commentators and tried to understand the sutra by ourselves without referring to the detailed commentary by any of the authors. We completed that round about two months ago. At that point we decided to continue with the discussion sessions and start from the beginning by studying the commentary by two authors in detail. We decided to pick one commentator from the classical school, based on the commentary by Vyasa and one with a more modern approach. For the former, we picked the commentary by Hariharananda Aranya and for the latter we picked Taimni.
Through these posts, I will try to present a summary of the discussion in each of the sessions as well as my best understanding of each sutra.
Invocation to Sage Patanjali
योगेन चित्तस्य पदेन वाचां । मलं शरीरस्य च वैद्यकेन ॥
योऽपाकरोत्तं प्रवरं मुनीनां । पतञ्जलिं प्राञ्जलिरानतोऽस्मि ॥
"I respectfully bow down with folded hands and offer my salutations to Sage Patanjali, the highest among the Munis (sages), who has presented the remedies for removing the impurities of the body through his treatise on Ayurveda, of language through his treatise on grammar (Patanjala Mahabhashya) and the impurities of the Chitta (mind field) through his treatise on Yoga (Yoga Sutras of Patanjali)".
Sutras 1.1 – 1.4
In sutras 1.1 through 1.4, Patanjali provides the basic definition of yoga. In that sense, these are some of the most important sutras in the text. With the basic understanding of what yoga is all about, it will become easier to grasp some of the other concepts presented in the yoga sutras.
Click on the link below to jump to the specific sutra.
Sutra 1.1
अथ योगानुशासनम्॥१॥
atha yogānuśāsanam||1||
Atha=now; yoga=what is yoga; anuśāsanam=discipline, exposition
Here, now, the teaching of yoga (commences). (sutra 1.1)
Commentary by Vyasa – vyāsa bhāṣya (व्यास भाष्य)
अथेत्ययमधिकारार्थः। athetyayamadhikārārthaḥ।
“Atha” meaning here or now, signifies an auspicious beginning.
योगानुशासनं शास्त्रमधिकृतं वेदितव्यम्। yogānuśāsanaṁ śāstramadhikṛtaṁ veditavyam।
The word “anuśāsanaṁ” means exposition or teaching and should be understood to imply beginning of this text on yoga. The prefix “anu” may also imply that this teaching is following the knowledge/wisdom that has existed in the past.
योगः समाधिः। yogaḥ samādhiḥ।
Yoga is samadhi, a deep state of absorption of the mind.
स च सार्वभौमश्चित्तस्य धर्मः। sa ca sārvabhaumaścittasya dharmaḥ।
And that (samadhi) is a universal attribute in all states of the mind (chitta).
क्षिप्तं मूढं विक्षिप्तमेकाग्रं निरुद्धमिति चित्तभूमयः। kṣiptaṁ mūḍhaṁ vikṣiptamekāgraṁ niruddhamiti cittabhūmayaḥ।
These states of the mind are: scattered or disturbed (kṣipta), deluded or stupefied (mūḍha), partially distracted (vikṣipta), one-pointed (ekāgra), and fully arrested (niruddha).
तत्र विक्षिप्ते चेतसि विक्षेपोपसर्जनीभूतः समाधिर्न योगपक्षे वर्तते। tatra vikṣipte cetasi vikṣepopasarjanībhūtaḥ samādhirna yogapakṣe vartate।
Among these, in the partially distracted state (vikṣipta), the state of concentration attainable is subordinate to the disturbed state of the mind. As such, it is not considered suitable for the final state of yoga. (The two lower states – disturbed and deluded – are automatically excluded).
यस्त्वेकाग्रे चेतसि सद्भूतमर्थं प्रद्योतयति क्षिणोति च क्लेशान्कर्मबन्धनानि श्लथयति निरोधमभिमुखं करोति स संप्रज्ञातो योग इत्याख्यायते। yastvekāgre cetasi sadbhūtamarthaṁ pradyotayati kṣiṇoti ca kleśānkarmabandhanāni ślathayati nirodhamabhimukhaṁ karoti sa saṁprajñāto yoga ityākhyāyate।
But the state of samadhi that is attainable by a mind that is one-pointed can illumine the true essence of the object being concentrated upon. It destroys all the kleshas (afflictions), loosens the bonds of Karma, and helps us approach the state of nirodha (total cessation of the fluctuations of the mind). This state of samadhi is known as saṁprajñāta yoga (samadhi in which there is knowledge of a single object in the mind). (The subject of afflictions is discussed in chapter 2, sutra 2.3 onward).
स च वितर्कानुगतो विचारानुगत आनन्दानुगतोऽस्मितानुगत इत्युपरिष्टान्निवेदयिष्यामः। sa ca vitarkānugato vicārānugata ānandānugato’smitānugata ityupariṣṭānnivedayiṣyāmaḥ।
As will be discussed later (sutra 1.17), that state of samadhi (saṁprajñāta) is of four types:
- Accompanied by discursive thoughts at a gross level (vitarka)
- Accompanied by thoughts at a subtle level (vichara)
- Accompanied by a state of bliss (Ananda)
- Accompanied by pure essence of being (Asmita)
सर्ववृत्तिनिरोधे त्वसंप्रज्ञातः समाधिः ॥ १ ॥ sarvavṛttinirodhe tvasaṁprajñātaḥ samādhiḥ ॥ 1 ॥
However, when one attains the state of total cessation of all the vrittis (fluctuations) in the mind, that state is called asaṁprajñāta samadhi (when there is no content in the mind). This is discussed in sutra 1.18.
तस्य लक्षणाभिधित्सयेदं सूत्रं प्रववृते– tasya lakṣaṇābhidhitsayedaṁ sūtraṁ pravavṛte-
This next sutra is being presented to describe the characteristics of the two states of yoga presented earlier.
Discussion
With this first sutra, Patanjali introduces the subject of yoga to his students who perhaps had already been undergoing training in other disciplines of learning. The word "atha" is usually translated as "here now", "now" etc. It has been used by other authors to introduce various texts. For example, the first sutra in Brahma Sutra is "atha brahma jijnasa" (now we explore an understanding of Brahma). The word is supposed to express these three features – authority and competence of the teacher to impart the knowledge, qualification of the student as being a deserving student to receive this knowledge, and an auspicious commencement of the subject.
The word yoga is derived from the Sanskrit root word "yuj" (युज्) which, depending upon the context, can mean "to yoke or join" or "to be in a state of deep meditation called samadhi". As will be seen in the subsequent sutras, the definition of yoga is to make the mind totally calm, devoid of the usual fluctuations that normally go on in the mind. That state of the mind is called "samadhi". So, from the context of yoga, we use the meaning "in samadhi" for the root word "yuj". The word "anushasanam", depending upon the context, can mean to discipline, to teach, to rule or govern etc. In the context of the current sutra it is taken to mean "to instruct". Hence with this sutra Patanjali begins to instruct his students in the discipline of yoga.
In his commentary on the sutra, Vyasa mentions that as the mind at any time can be in one of the five states:
- kshipta (restless/scattered)
- mudha (dull, confused)
- vikshipta (distracted/partially focussed)
- ekagra (one-pointed focus)
- niruddha (fully absorbed or restrained)
Of these five states of the mind, even vikshipta, which has moments of focus, cannot lead to the state of yoga (samadhi) since the mind gets distracted too easily. In the ekagra (one-pointed focus) state, the mind can stay deeply focused on one object for extended periods of time. Thus, it can lead to the state of Samprajnata samadhi which comprises four stages of vitarka, vichara, Ananda and Asmita. These are described later on in sutra 1.17. When there is total cessation of the fluctuations of the mind (niruddha state), the final state of samadhi called Asamprajnata samadhi (sutra 1.18) is attained.
Fluctuations of the mind are caused by an imbalance of the three gunas – sattva (purity), rajas (action) and tamas (dullness). The objective of the practice of yoga is to guide the mind to stay in the ekagra state for a period of time and finally transition to the niruddha (fully restrained) state.
Sutra 1.2
योगश्चित्तवृत्तिनिरोधः॥२॥
Yogaścittavṛttinirodhaḥ||2||
yogah=yoga; citta=mind-field; vṛtti=fluctuations; nirodhaḥ=restraint
Yoga is the cessation (nirodha) of the modifications (vrittis) of the mind-field (chitta) (1.2)
Commentary by Vyasa – vyāsa bhāṣya (व्यास भाष्य)
सर्वशब्दाग्रहणात्संप्रज्ञातोऽपि योग इत्याख्यायते। sarvaśabdāgrahaṇātsaṁprajñāto’pi yoga ityākhyāyate।
Because the word ‘sarva’ (all) is not used to qualify vritti, it implies that saṁprajñāta yoga (samadhi in which there is knowledge of a single object in the mind) is also included in the meaning of nirodha. This is in addition to asaṁprajñāta samadhi wherein there is no content in the mind.
चित्तं हि प्रख्याप्रवृत्तिस्थितिशीलत्वात्त्रिगुणम्। cittaṁ hi prakhyāpravṛttisthitiśīlatvāttriguṇam।
Chitta is of the nature of the three gunas (sattva, rajas, and tamas) as it exhibits the qualities of illumination (knowledge and discrimination), activity and inertia.
प्रख्यारूपं हि चित्तसत्त्वं रजस्तमोभ्यां संसृष्टमैश्वर्यविषयप्रियं भवति। prakhyārūpaṁ hi cittasattvaṁ rajastamobhyāṁ saṁsṛṣṭamaiśvaryaviṣayapriyaṁ bhavati।
The illumining aspect of sattvic intellect, when mixed with rajas and tamas, seeks power in the form of worldly achievements and pleasures through the sense objects.
तदेव तमसाऽनुविद्धमधर्माज्ञानावैराग्यानैश्वर्योपगं भवति। tadeva tamasā’nuviddhamadharmājñānāvairāgyānaiśvaryopagaṁ bhavati।
When the same sattva is pierced by tamas, it moves toward unrighteousness (adharma), ignorance (ajñāna), lack of dispassion or non-attachment (avairāgya), and lack of achievement or sovereignty (anaiśvarya).
तदेव प्रक्षीणमोहावरणं सर्वतः प्रद्योतमानमनुविद्धं रजोमात्रया धर्मज्ञानवैराग्यैश्वर्योपगं भवति। tadeva prakṣīṇamohāvaraṇaṁ sarvataḥ pradyotamānamanuviddhaṁ rajomātrayā dharmajñānavairāgyaiśvaryopagaṁ bhavati।
The same (sattvic chitta), with the veil of delusion fully weakened, shines in its fulness in all ways and pierced by a trace of rajas, it turns toward virtue (dharma), knowledge (jñāna), dispassion (vairāgya), and sovereignty (aiśvarya).
तदेव रजोलेशमलापेतं स्वरूपप्रतिष्ठं सत्त्वपुरुषान्यताख्यातिमात्रं धर्ममेघध्यानोपगं भवति। tadeva rajoleśamalāpetaṁ svarūpapratiṣṭhaṁ sattvapuruṣānyatākhyātimātraṁ dharmameghadhyānopagaṁ bhavati।
The same (sattvic chitta), bereft of the last trace of rajas, gets settled in its own nature, with only the awareness of the separateness between the intellect (sattva, the mind stuff, representing prakriti) and purusha (pure consciousness), and tends towards the dharma-megha level of samadhi (to be discussed in sutra 4.29).
तत्परं प्रसंख्यानमित्याचक्षते ध्यायिनः। tatparaṁ prasaṁkhyānamityācakṣate dhyāyinaḥ।
Yogis consider that to be the highest state of awareness.
चितिशक्तिरपरिणामिन्यप्रतिसंक्रमा दर्शितविषया शुद्धा चानन्ता च सत्त्वगुणात्मिका चेयमतोविपरीता विवेकख्यातिरिति। citiśaktirapariṇāminyapratisaṁkramā darśitaviṣayā śuddhā cānantā ca sattvaguṇātmikā ceyamatoviparītā vivekakhyātiriti।
The power of pure consciousness (citiśakti) does not go through any transformation, has no movement in it, the sense objects are presented to it, is pure (unaffected by sattva, rajas and tamas) and is endless. Quite the opposite is the knowledge of the differentiation (between intellect and purusha – vivekakhyāti), as it is of the nature of sattva guna.
अतस्तस्यां विरक्तं चित्तं तामपि ख्यातिं निरुणद्धि। atastasyāṁ viraktaṁ cittaṁ tāmapi khyātiṁ niruṇaddhi।
This vivekakhyāti which is associated with the buddhi, is tied to the sattva guna, being a part of prakriti. The chitta, thus, eradicates that knowledge as well, detaching itself from it.
तदवस्थं संस्कारोपगं भवति। tadavasthaṁ saṁskāropagaṁ bhavati।
In this state, the chitta retains only the latent impression.
स निर्बीजः समाधिः। sa nirbījaḥ samādhiḥ।
This is samadhi without seed.
न तत्र किंचित्संप्रज्ञायत इत्यसंप्रज्ञातः। na tatra kiṁcitsaṁprajñāyata ityasaṁprajñātaḥ।
In this state, nothing is being cognized, hence it is called asaṁprajñāyata samadhi.
द्विविधः स योगश्चित्तवृत्तिनिरोध इति ॥ २ ॥ dvividhaḥ sa yogaścittavṛttinirodha iti ॥ 2 ॥ That yoga, defined as the cessation of the fluctuations of the chitta, is thus twofold.
तदवस्थे चेतसि विषयाभावाद्बुद्धिबोधात्मा पुरुषः किंस्वभाव इति – tadavasthe cetasi viṣayābhāvādbuddhibodhātmā puruṣaḥ kiṁsvabhāva iti –
In that state, when there is no object in the mind, what is the nature of Purusha, the knower of buddhi (intellect)?
This can be considered as one of the most important sutras as it provides a basic definition of yoga. As per this definition, the mind needs to be brought to a state wherein there are no more perturbations going on in the mind. In order to understand the mind and how it functions, it is a good idea to think of the mind as a composite of four functions:
- Manas (cognitive)
- Buddhi (intellect)
- Ahamkara (ego)
- Chitta (storehouse of memories and impressions)
Discussion
In our current state, for the most part, our thoughts and actions are driven by the ego. What is needed is to transfer this control over to the intellect. When the intellect can function independent of the influence of the ego and the past impressions, only then can the mind become free of the constant chatter that it is engaged in. In the entire text of the sutras, the emphasis is on diminishing the influence of the ego. At the same time, we want to make the intellect, as guided by our pure intuitive wisdom (not by the ego) as the controlling function of the mind-field. Only then can we get into the state of samadhi wherein all the fluctuations in the mind have been stilled.
Sutra 1.3
तदा द्रष्टुः स्वरूपेऽवस्थानम्॥३॥
tadā draṣṭuḥ svarūpe’vasthānam||3||
tadā=then; draṣṭuḥ=of the Seer; svarūpe=in its own true nature; avasthānam=abidance, situation||3||
Then the Seer [Self] abides in His own true nature.
Commentary by Vyasa – vyāsa bhāṣya (व्यास भाष्य)
स्वरूपप्रतिष्ठा तदानीं चितिशक्तिर्यथा कैवल्ये। svarūpapratiṣṭhā tadānīṁ citiśaktiryathā kaivalye।
Then the consciousness is established in her own nature, just as it is in the state of kaivalya (liberation).
व्युत्थानचित्ते तु सति तथाऽपि भवन्ती न तथा ॥ ३ ॥ vyutthānacitte tu sati tathā’pi bhavantī na tathā ॥ 3 ॥
On the other hand, in the state when the mind is focused outward, the consciousness, while being in the same state (in her own nature), does not appear to be so.
कथं तर्हि, दर्शितविषयत्वात् – kathaṁ tarhi, darśitaviṣayatvāt –
How then? It is because the objects of the senses are being presented to the consciousness –
Discussion
In this sutra Patanjali points to the basic concept from the Samkhya philosophy, that of the existence of two independent entities – Purusha (pure consciousness or soul) and Prakriti (matter). Purusha, as per this concept, is nothing but an observer of all the action happening at the Prakriti level. In this sutra, the Sanskrit word for an observer – drashTA – is used to denote Purusha. So, the sutra states that when the fluctuations of the mind have been subdued then the observer (or the seer) gets established in its own nature. As per this philosophy, it is the apparent entanglement of Purusha with the ego (Prakriti) that is the cause of all suffering (klesha). When the Purusha is free from any identification with the ego, it can abide in its true nature and we can stay free of any pain or suffering.
Sutra 1.4
वृत्तिसारूप्यमितरत्र॥४॥
vṛttisārūpyamitaratra||4||
vṛtti=fluctuation of the mind; sārūpyam=assumes the form of; itaratra=otherwise
In other states (when the vrittis are not in the state of nirodha), the Seer appears to be identified with the modifications that are occurring in the chitta. (1.4)
Commentary by Vyasa – vyāsa bhāṣya (व्यास भाष्य)
व्युत्थाने याश्चित्तवृत्तयस्तदविशिष्टवृत्तिः पुरुषः। vyutthāne yāścittavṛttayastadaviśiṣṭavṛttiḥ puruṣaḥ।
When the mind is focused outwardly on the objects (vyutthāna state), purusha is indistinguishable from the vrittis of the mind.
तथा च सूत्रम् – “एकमेव दर्शनं ख्यातिरेव दर्शनम्” इति। tathā ca sūtram – “ekameva darśanaṁ khyātireva darśanam” iti।
The same is mentioned in the sutra (attributed to Pancha-Shikhacharya), “consciousness sees whatever is the vritti appearing in the chitta”.
चित्तमयस्कान्तमणिकल्पं संनिधिमात्रोपकारि दृश्यत्वेन स्वं भवति पुरुषस्य स्वामिनः। cittamayaskāntamaṇikalpaṁ saṁnidhimātropakāri dṛśyatvena svaṁ bhavati puruṣasya svāminaḥ।
The chitta is comparable to a magnet, which, by its mere proximity becomes an object (for purusha) and thus a property of the master, the purusha. In a sense, the vritti of the mind gets attributed to purusha.
तस्माच्चित्तवृत्तिबोधे पुरुषस्यानादिः संबन्धो हेतुः ॥ ४ ॥ tasmāccittavṛttibodhe puruṣasyānādiḥ saṁbandho hetuḥ ॥ 4 ॥
Therefore, the cause of the purusha identifying with the modifications in the chitta is the beginningless bond with it.
ताः पुनर्निरोद्धव्या बहुत्वे सति चित्तस्य – tāḥ punarniroddhavyā bahutve sati cittasya –
These vrittis of the chitta, being many, must be controlled.
Discussion
The previous two sutras emphasized the need for the mind to become totally still before the pure consciousness (Purusha) can get established in its pure nature. In the current sutra, Patanjali offers almost a warning that if you do not make the effort to still the mind’s fluctuations, then the vrittis (fluctuations caused by the ego and the past impressions) take control of the mind. That, as we mentioned earlier, is the main cause of all human suffering (kleshas).
Sutra 1.5
वृत्तयः पञ्चतय्यः क्लिष्टाऽक्लिष्टाः ॥
vṛttayaḥ pañcatayyaḥ kliṣṭā akliṣṭāḥ||5||
vṛttayaḥ=vrittis (fluctuations of the mind); pañcatayyaḥ=five-fold; kliṣṭā=painfull; akliṣṭāḥ=not painful
The fluctuations of the mind (vrittis) are five-fold, and they can be either painful or not painful. (1.5)
Commentary by Vyasa – vyāsa bhāṣya (व्यास भाष्य)
क्लेशहेतुकाः कर्माशयप्रचये क्षेत्रीभूताः क्लिष्टाः। kleśahetukāḥ karmāśayapracaye kṣetrībhūtāḥ kliṣṭāḥ।
The painful ones are those that are caused by the afflictions (kleshas – to be described in sutra 2.3 onward) and form the ground for the accumulation of karmas (samskaras) in the form of karmāśaya (storehouse of karmas).
ख्यातिविषया गुणाधिकारविरोधिन्योऽक्लिष्टाः। khyātiviṣayā guṇādhikāravirodhinyo’kliṣṭāḥ।
Those vrittis that are not painful have knowledge as their object and obstruct the operation of the three gunas (sattva, rajas and tamas). Note: the word ‘khyāti’ means knowledge or understanding. Some commentators have implied the meaning viveka-khyāti which is the discriminative discernment that leads to the understanding of distinction between purusha and prakriti.
क्लिष्टप्रवाहपतिता अप्यक्लिष्टाः। kliṣṭapravāhapatitā apyakliṣṭāḥ।
These continue to remain unafflicted even in the presence of a stream of afflicted ones.
क्लिष्टच्छिद्रेष्वप्यक्लिष्टा भवन्ति। kliṣṭacchidreṣvapyakliṣṭā bhavanti।
The unafflicted may appear during breaks in the afflicted vrittis.
अक्लिष्टच्छिद्रेषु क्लिष्टा इति। akliṣṭacchidreṣu kliṣṭā iti।
Similarly, afflicted vrittis may appear during gaps in the unafflicted ones.
तथाजातीयकाः संस्कारा वृत्तिभिरेव क्रियन्ते। tathājātīyakāḥ saṁskārā vṛttibhireva kriyante।
Samskaras are created following the nature of the vrittis (afflicted or non-afflicted).
संस्कारैश्च वृत्तय इति। saṁskāraiśca vṛttaya iti। Similarly, vrittis are created by the samskaras.
एवं वृत्तिसंस्कारचक्रमनिशमावर्तते। evaṁ vṛttisaṁskāracakramaniśamāvartate।
Thus, the cycle of vrittis and samskaras continues incessantly.
तदेवंभूतं चित्तमवसिताधिकारमात्मकल्पेन व्यवतिष्ठते प्रलयं वा गच्छतीति। tadevaṁbhūtaṁ cittamavasitādhikāramātmakalpena vyavatiṣṭhate pralayaṁ vā gacchatīti।
When activities of such a chitta come to an end (on attainment of samadhi), then it attains the same stillness as atma (consciousness); or, it goes into dissolution (pralaya).
ताः क्लिष्टाश्चाक्लिष्टाश्च पञ्चधा वृत्तयः ॥ ५ ॥ tāḥ kliṣṭāścākliṣṭāśca pañcadhā vṛttayaḥ ॥ 5 ॥
These vrittis, then, are five-fold and are either afflicted or non-afflicted.
Discussion
Taimni
Taimni defines not-painful as those impressions that do not cause any pleasure or pain; e.g., observing a tree while driving. All other impressions whether they give pleasure or pain are classified as ‘painful’. He has done that in view of the statement later on in the text (Sutra 2.15) that for a wise man, everything is painful.
In my opinion, this is stretching the argument a littel too far. While we are not yet enlightened, I would like to classify smelling a rose as ‘not-painful’ while watching a horrible accident as ‘painful’.
Aranya
They (modifications) fall into five varieties, of which some are ‘Klista’ and the rest ‘Aklista’.
The vrittis which are classified as ‘painful’ are based on the five kleshas (discussed in chapter 2) – ignorance, egoism, likes, dislikes and fear of death. Those that are classified as ‘not-painful’ concern final discriminative enlightenment (khyati) and represent freedom from the effect of the three gunas (sattva, rajas and tamas). All fluctuations whether ‘painful’ or ‘not-painful’ result in impressions (samskaras) which result in further vrittis and so on. Aranya at this point goes into a discussion of the five types of vrittis and how each one can be paiful or not. To me it seems like putting the cart before the horse, confusing the issue since we haven’t been exposed to the five vrittis yet.
Sutra 1.6
प्रमाणविपर्ययविकल्पनिद्रास्मृतयः ॥
pramāṇa=right knowledge; viparyaya=wrong/confused knowledge; vikalpa=fancy/imaginary knowledge; nidrā=deep sleep; smṛtayaḥ=memories
These (the five vrittis) are correct cognition, misconception, fantasy, deep sleep and memory. (1.6)
Discussion
Taimni
Right knowledge, wrong knowledge, fancy/imagination, sleep and memory (are the five vrittis)
Right knowledge and wrong knowledge are impressions formed by direct contact with the five senses; fancy and memory are modifications formed without direct contact with the senses (even though they are based on previous sense impressions). Memory represents a faithful reproduction of previously stored impressions while in ‘fancy’ they can be reproduced in any random order. In deep sleep, there are no mental images at all even though the mind continues to be active.
Aranya
(They are) Pramana, Viparyaya, Vikalpa, (dreamless) sleep and recollection.
Q: if dreamless sleep is a fluctuation of the mind, why not consider waking and dream states as well?
A: The other four types of vrittis can account for all the experiences in the waking and dream states. Feelings like happiness and sorrow cannot be controlled by themselves but can be controlled by shutting out valid cognition etc which give rise to them.
A distinction is made between cognitive fluctuations called ‘pratyaya’ and the latent impressions called ‘samskaras’. Mind or ‘chitta’ has three functions – cognition (knowing), willing and retention (memory and samskaras). It is these cognitive fluctuations that need to be controlled as ‘chitta vritti nirodhah’. It is not clear how we deal with the ‘samskaras’ here.
Sutra 1.7
प्रत्यक्षानुमानागमाः प्रमाणानि ॥
pratyakṣa=direct perception; anumāna=inference; āgamāḥ=testimony of a reliable source; pramāṇāni=sources of right knowledge
Direct perception, valid inference and verbal testimony are sources of correct cognition (pramāṇa). (1.7)
Commentary by Vyasa – vyāsa bhāṣya (व्यास भाष्य)
इन्द्रियप्रणालिकया चित्तस्य बाह्यवस्तूपरागात्तद्विषया सामान्यविशेषात्मनोऽर्थस्य विशेषावधारणप्रधाना वृत्तिः प्रत्यक्षं प्रमाणम्। indriyapraṇālikayā cittasya bāhyavastūparāgāttadviṣayā sāmānyaviśeṣātmano’rthasya viśeṣāvadhāraṇapradhānā vṛttiḥ pratyakṣaṁ pramāṇam।
The vritti in the mind (chitta) caused when the mind is colored by an external object through one of the sense channels is called direct cognition (pratyakṣa pramāṇa). It primarily determines the specific characteristics of the object which displays both general and specific characteristics.
फलमविशिष्टः पौरुषेयश्चित्तवृत्तिबोधः। phalamaviśiṣṭaḥ pauruṣeyaścittavṛttibodhaḥ।
That results in the perception by Purusha which is indistinct from what is perceived by the chitta.
प्रतिसंवेदी पुरुष इत्युपरिष्टादुपपादयिष्यामः। pratisaṁvedī puruṣa ityupariṣṭādupapādayiṣyāmaḥ।
The fact that Purusha is reflected in the buddhi will be explained later.
अनुमेयस्य तुल्यजातीयेष्वनुवृत्तो भिन्नजातीयेभ्यो व्यावृत्तः संबन्धो यस्तद्विषया सामान्यावधारणप्रधाना वृत्तिरनुमानम्। anumeyasya tulyajātīyeṣvanuvṛtto bhinnajātīyebhyo vyāvṛttaḥ saṁbandho yastadviṣayā sāmānyāvadhāraṇapradhānā vṛttiranumānam।
Inference is a vritti in which the cognition is related to generic characteristics of the object and is inferred by knowing the relationship which is displayed by objects of the same class but is absent in objects of different classes.
यथा देशान्तरप्राप्तेर्गतिमच्चन्द्रतारकं चैत्रवत्, विन्ध्यश्चाप्राप्तिरगतिः। yathā deśāntaraprāptergatimaccandratārakaṁ caitravat, vindhyaścāprāptiragatiḥ।
An example is given: We infer that the moon and the stars are moving as they assume different locations (in the sky) just as a moving person named Chaitra. On the other hand, the Vindhya mountain does not move as it does not occupy a different location.
आप्तेन दृष्टोऽनुमितो वाऽर्थपरत्रस्वबोधसंक्रान्तये शब्देनोपदिश्यते, शब्दात्तदर्थविषया वृत्तिः श्रोतुरागमः। āptena dṛṣṭo’numito vā’rthaparatrasvabodhasaṁkrāntaye śabdenopadiśyate, śabdāttadarthaviṣayā vṛttiḥ śroturāgamaḥ।
The knowledge of an object which has been directly perceived or inferred by a competent and trustworthy person is communicated to another (person) by means of words. The vritti created in the listener’s mind by those words representing the same knowledge is called āgama.
यस्याश्रद्धेयार्थो वक्ता न दृष्टानुमितार्थः स आगमः प्लवते। yasyāśraddheyārtho vaktā na dṛṣṭānumitārthaḥ sa āgamaḥ plavate।
An agama whose speaker is untrustworthy and whose words are not a result of direct perception or inference, that agama floats (carries no weight) and cannot be trusted.
मूलवक्तरि तु दृष्टानुमितार्थे निर्विप्लवः स्यात् ॥ ७ ॥ mūlavaktari tu dṛṣṭānumitārthe nirviplavaḥ syāt ॥ 7 ॥
On the other hand, the agama coming from the original speaker who has direct perception or inference is entirely trustworthy.
Discussion
Taimni
Direct perception is information received by the mind through direct contact with the five senses. Inference involves partial knowledge through the five senses and the rest inferred based on prior sense perceptions. For example, when you hear footsteps, you can infer, based on prior knowledge, that this sound is from human footsteps, not from an animal. Testimony is information received through a reliable, trustworthy source – a person or a scripture.
Aranya
(Of these) Perception, inference and testimony (verbal communication) constitutethe Pramanas.
We ran into a lot of problems while trying to understand the commentary. Part of the problem, which is common throughout the text, is that Aranya brings up concepts which are supposed to be discussed later on in the book. Also, the translator for the English volume, most likely in an effort to remain faithful to the original Bengali text, has used a language which seems highly convoluted and difficult to follow. I am presenting below the best understanding that I have so far of each of the numbered points in the text:
- Prama is uncontradicted knowledge about a real object. Pramana is the means of getting that knowledge. It relates to knowledge about things which are perceived directly by the senses externally. In contrast, ‘experience’ relates to what happens inside the bounds of the senses, i.e., the cognitive mind – memories, emotions etc.
- Mind, as the sixth sense, needs to work in conjunction with the five external senses to make ‘sense’ out of the objects perceived. For example when we hear the sound of a crow, the ear only presents a sound; it is the mind, based on previous knowledge, that determines that it is the voice of a crow.
- Here we have a discussion of the ‘special’ and ‘general’ features of the external objects. For exeample, if we look at a person, based on prior knowledge, we know that this is ‘John’. We recognize special characteristics associated with John – his being tall, handsome, etc. In addition, we also perceive some general characteristics – he is a ‘man’ as opposed to being a ‘woman’ etc.
- I don’t understand this point fully – however, I believe what is being pointed out here is that unless full ‘self-realization’ is acheived, we tend to identify the ‘purusha’ with the vritti appearing in the mind as a result of direct perception. This happens because of ‘ahamkara’ or the I-sense which prevents the ‘purusha’ from remaining as the pure observer.
- Here again, I don’t quite understand the use of the word ‘reflector’ as a reference to ‘purusha’. Naresh can possibly clarify if ‘reflector’ is an accurate translation for ‘pratisamvedi’ (in Vyasa’s text). Normally I understand the purusha as the illuminator of buddhi. If we take it as the reflector, then buddhi becomes the source of light – which is against our current understanding.
- The example of inference given here states that if there is change in physical position, it represents motion. This is observed from the fact that when Chaitra (name of a person) moves, there is change in his position. So, looking at moon and the stars, we infer that they move since they change their position. A mountain does not move since there is no change in its position. So, to make an inference, a prior knowledge of similar relationship is necessary.
- People whose statements can be accepted without question are called ‘aptas’, or reliable source. When an Apta’s word creates a sure knowledge in your mind, it is called an Agama or testimony. Agama can be a result of verbal or a written transmission (scriptures can be considered knowledge provided by seers who are ‘aptas’).
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